GoGuizhou.com is inspired by the amazing people we have met and places we have been since coming here and we wish to pass on that gift so you can get the most out of your visit in Guizhou. Questions? Comments? Want to help make the site? EMAIL US! : emyxter@gmail.com (from googuizhou.weebly.com/index.html ) Guiyang History The region making up modern day Guiyang has an ancient history spanning thousands of years. During the Epoch of the Warring states the region was the middle zone between the Chu Qian, and it was subordinate to the mysterious Yelang Kingdom, a society which was established by local ethnic groups and was believed to be a wealthy and prosperous kingdom ecomomically and culturally until it suddenly disappeared in 26 BC. After the disappearence of the Yelang Kingdom, the area became subordinate to the Zangke Prefucture during the Han Dynasties, and in the periods of the Tang Dynasties the area was under the control of the Ju Autonomus Prefuncture. During the Song Dynasty the area including and encomapassing modern day Guiyang was named Guizhou. The old city of Guiyang was constructed during the Yuan Dynasty (which was founded by Kublai Khan and the Mongols) in 1283 AD, and was originally named Shunyuan, meaning "obeying the Yuan." The Mongols made Guiyang the seat of an army and a “pacification zone”. Around this period local Chinese began to settle the area. During the Qing and Ming dynasties the city was established as an administrative center and renamed Guiyang. It became the capital of Guizhou province in 1913. Locally Guiyang beacme an important economic center, with two merhant communitied inhabiting the city. These were the Sichuanese people who primarily lived in the northern section of the city, and the peoples of Guangdong, Hunan, and Guangxi, who dominated the southern part of Guiyang. Despite Guiyang's economic importance to Guizhou province, the predominate perception of the city was that it was merely the capital city of one of China's poorest and least developed provinces. During the Chinese war between the Communist forces and the Kuo Ming Tang, the leader of the Kuo MangTing forces, Chinag Kai Shek, flew to Guiyang and made it his base of operations agaist Mao Zedong, in an effort to prevent comunist forces from capturing the city. Mao and his Red forces fled East and the city was left undistrubed until 1939 when it was bombed by Japanese forces. As a result of these attacks approximately a third of "old" Guiyang was destroyed. During World War II Guiyang became the center of Nationalist Activities against invading Japanese forces and many refugees from the eastern part of China sought refuge. As a result, bustling economic and social activity emerged and Guiyang’s rapid development was underway. During the war roads and other vital infrastructure was built which linked Guiyang to Yunan and Chongqing. Furthermore, construction began on a railway between Guiyang and Liuzhou, Guangxi, and this construction was accelerated in 1949. This railway was completed in 1959, and subsequently connected Guiyang to Chongqing in the north, Kunming in the west, and Changsha in the east. In the decades following the completein of this ambitious project Guiyang has continued to develop at a rapid pace, and today the city is an economic hub of Guizhou province. (from googuizhou.weebly.com/history1.html ) Guiyang Government Services Guiyang has more experience than anywhere else in Guizhou dealing with foreigners, but like all places in the world, it can sometimes be a headache to work with these bureaucratic institutions. But when you must, here is the information you need. Visa Office Guiyang Gong'anJu ChuRu JingJieDail Da Ting 贵阳公安局出入境接大厅 Address: DaYing Lu 5 hao 大营路 5 号 Phone: 679-7907 Bus Stop: Guiyang RiBaoShe 贵阳日报社 Come prepared with photos, passport, and the necessary school or business papers for your particular visa. You may also need to bring the original lodging registration form from the police station. Allow five days for them to process your visa. Most of the time the officers can speak English, but it is also most helpful to go with a business or educational associate. Fesco Foreign Enterprise Service GuiyangShi WaiGuo QiYe FuWu Zong GongSi 贵阳市外国企业服务总公司 Address: ShenQi Lu 8 Hao JingXie Da sha 20 Lou 2006 Shi 神奇路8号经协大厦 20 楼 2006 室 Phone: 580-6749 Web: www.gyfesco.com Bus Stop: ShenQiLu 神奇路 This office can help you get the paperwork done to validate a foreign business. The price isn't cheap but they deal with most of the paperwork and run around so you don't have to. A new business is over 8,000 yuan and 3,000 for a representative office. Health Certificate Office GuiZhouSheng ChuRu Jing JianYanJian YiJu 贵州省出入境检验检疫局 Address: Beijing Lu 2 Hao 北京路 2 号 Phone: 678-1936 Bus Stop: GuiYangRiBaoShe or GuiYi 贵阳日报社 or 贵医 In order to get a visa anywhere in china one must pass the arcane health examination. The test will cost over 300 yuan. The tests are said not to be terrible, but are only offered in the mornings (they prefer that you not eat breakfast before you come). Plan for about four days before you will get all the paperwork back. Bring your passport and two large size visa photos. Labor Department ZhongHua RenMin ZongHeGuo LaoDong HeSheHui 中华人民共和国劳动和社会 Address: BaoZheng Zhang Bu, HuaGuoYuan GuiZhuDaSha 15 Lou 1506 Shi, 保证障部花果园贵祝大厦 15楼 1506室 Phone: 536-5641 Bus Stop: HuaGuoYuan 花果园 Once the government has approved your business, the labor department will validate your business, give you a work ID and issue the papers you need for your work visa. (from googuizhou.weebly.com/visa--govt-services.html ) Shopping If there is one thing you can do well in Guiyang it is shop. Every street, alleyway, sidewalk and crossing-way has something to buy. From high-end fashion to knock-off Cell Phones this is your one stop guide for shopping in Guiyang. Supermarkets Guiyang has a wide array of supermarkets from international chains to local Chinese markets. Best Supermarkets in Guiyang 1. Carefore 2. Beijing Hualian 3. Xingli Department Stores supermarket 4. WalMart Best Mall/Department Stores 1. Floral Plaza 2. Hunter Plaza 3. Hongsomething chang 4. xingli 5. Best Street Markets in Guiyang 1. Bird and Flower Market 2. Flower Market (from googuizhou.weebly.com/shopping.html ) Guiyang Markets Guiyang has an incredible amount of Markets in which you can find almost anything you want. Here is your guide to find the best ones. Bird and Flower Market 花鸟市场 The Bird and Flower market is the best market in town if you want some Chinese crafts, tea, arts, antiques as well as if you want to find a cute new pet for your home here. Although every large city in China has a Bird and Flower Market, Guiyang's is much different as the low volume of foreign tourists who come every year means the market has retained the local feel that it should have. Aside from the shops the Bird and Flower Market also has some of the best local food in town. Any visit to Guiyang would not be complete without a visit to he Bird and Flower Market. For more information click "Bird and Flower Market" Cheese Street Located in-between ZhuCheng Square and the train station, in a seemingly hidden street "Cheese Street" is a gold mine for local foreigners. The area is a Chinese wholesale market for the city, but past all the Chinese goods is a large area of foreign spices, ingredients and cheeses that are difficult to find in the rest of the city. Shi Xi Lu 市西路 Shi Xi Lu is Guiyang's largest and busiest wholesale market. The market goes from Daxi Men all the way to the old bus station. The place is almost always full, making it an exciting trip for a first timer but could be a little bit of a headache going through all the traffic all the time. Inside you will find everything from fake clothing, household items, rugs, shoes, art, junk, strange things, and just about anything else under the sun. The place is very crowded so watch out for your belongings, but if you want an truly Chinese shopping experience (Remember when bargaining start low! they are going to start really high), or if you need to find something that's hard to get, go to ShiXiLu. (from googuizhou.weebly.com/chinese-markets.html) Getting Money in Guiyang ATM's are incredibly widespread in China. Almost every bank has an ATM with English language screen and accepts international debit cards. The Chinese bank will deduct a small service fee from it and your bank at home will also charge an international exchange rate fee, depending on the bank this fee is between 2-4%. China Construction bank has a partnership with Bank of America. If your debit card is through bank of America, you can use this bank without a fee. Creating a Chinese Bank Account If you come to Guizhou for work or long term studying it is possible for you to open a Chinese bank account. Most often the institution who hires you can help you do the paper work. Guiyang has no English speaking bank tellers, so bring a Chinese friend and your passport with a long-term visa and you can create an account in one day. If you have a Chinese debit card, using another bank's ATM has only a 2 yuan sir charge. (from googuizhou.weebly.com/services.html ) Longdongbao airport (贵阳龙洞堡国际机场) Guiyang's airport (KWE) was refurbished a few years ago and is one of the most convenient airports in China. Because of its small size lines are usually short, security is fast and the restaurants and food stands are inexpensive. Everyday there are over 100 domestic arrivals and departures to main cities in China such as Chengdu, Kunming, Guangzhou, Shanghai and Beijing. (full departure/arrival list) (Full list of airlines) There are a few once a week trips to popular international locations such as Hong Kong, Macao and Bangkok but they are not cheap. International flights - If you wish to go to SE Asia your best bet from Guizhou is to use Air Asia out of Chengdu or China Southern out of Kunming. If you want to go international to the West or the Philippines you are best to fly from Guiyang to Guangzhou, Shanghai or Beijing. One can usually get a one way ticket to Guangzhou for under 500 yuan ($80) on China Southern and once in Guangzhou, the Guangzhou airport typically has cheaper flights to America than Beijing or Shanghai. Getting to City Center - To enter the city from the airport one can either take a taxi or the airport shuttle bus. Taxis can be found outside of the front door in the taxi line, during the day you can usually get a metered taxi but at night one must negoitate. You should not have to pay more than 30-50 yuan to get into the city center. The shuttle bus (10 yuan) runs from the morning to the night and leaves whenever it is full (every 15-30 minutes). The last stop for the shuttle bus is the train station near the city center. Getting to the Airport - To get to the airport one can find the shuttle bus outside the train station that leaves about every 15 minutes or take a taxi (tell the driver ji chang 飞机场). ( from googuizhou.weebly.com/plane.html ) Guiyang Train Station (贵阳火车站) Guiyang's train station is located near the heart of the city. As the station is SW China's main hub, everyday there are about 100 trains that go to hundreds of cities in the area and all around China. (full list of Guiyang departures) Guiyang is a major stop that connects the east to Kunming (12 hours, about 130 yuan hard sleeper), the west to Guangzhou (30 hours, about 350 yuan hard sleeper) and the North to Chengdu (16 hours 170 yuan hard sleeper) and Chongqing (8 hours 100 yuan hard sleeper). There are no direct trains from Guiyang to Guilin but you can get to Hunan through Kaili. There is even a direct train from Guiyang to the island Hainan that transports you by boat (sleeper 300 yuan). Buying a Ticket To buy a ticket one must be able to speak basic Chinese, come pre-prepaired with your written itinerary or use one of the ticket machines at the train station. You can buy a ticket at the train station starting 10 days prior to your departure. Throughout the city there are also small ticket booths where you can buy tickets for an extra 5 yuan. The most prominent one is located inside the Postal Savings bank across the street from Pizza Hut in Peng Shui Che. Getting into Town Bus - Upon entering the city you can either take a public bus or a taxi. Across the street from the train station you will see many buses lined up. Bus 1 and 2 will take you to the center of the city. Taxi - After the buses near the train station hotel there is a line for metered taxis. This line will work for you during the day but at night taxis can be more difficult. That being said taxis can be difficult to get, especially if you want a meter at night. Beware if you are foreign taxi drivers will try to overcharge you. A metered taxi in Guiyang starts at 8 yuan and goes up after you reach 2 km. If you can get a taxi to go to where you need to go for 10-15 yuan take it. ( from googuizhou.weebly.com/train.html ) Guiyang Buses Public Buses in Guiyang are cheap and extensive allow you to get to any part of the city all day long. But with larges amounts of people using them and Guiyang's infamous traffic, they can sometimes be a pain to use, especially if you cannot get a seat. The most promient routes are the 1 and 2. They use double decker buses and run from the Train station to city center. The 1 via ZunYi RD (Faster) and the 2 via HeBin Park (longer but goes to other major locations) Below is a list of all the bus routes and bus stops. You may click on the number to see where the bus goes, for how long and what to do/see at each stop. NOTE: AS WITH GUIZHOU, BUS ROUTES CHANGE RAPIDLY!!! THIS IS A GOOD GUIDE, BUT FOR PRACTICAL REASONS WILL NOT ALWAYS BE CORRECT Bus Routes 1 Double-Decker - 2 Double-Decker - 3 - 7 - 8 - 9 - 11 - 17 - 19 - 20 - 24 - 26 - 28 - 29 - 30 - 31 - 36 - 39 - 43 - 45 - 48 - 54 - 55 - 56 - 58 - 60 - 61 - 63 - 65 - 67 - 68 - 73 -74 - 203 - 241 - 242 - 253 - k29 Bus Stops 喷水池 - PenShuiChi - Is the city center has: Pizza Hut, Createa,Grandma's Kitchen, Parkson, Flower Plaza, Japanese Ramen, Sunning,KFC, Dicos and more. 1. 次南门 - CiNan Men - Provincial Science an Technology Museum 2. 大十字 - DaShiZi - Spaceship intersection, KFC, Parkson, Top-Spinning Park, Wholesale Snack and Liquor Market 3. 大西门 - DaXiMen - Computer City, ShiXiLu Market, KFC 4. 大营坡 - DaYingPo - 5. 东门 - DongMen 6. 贵大 - GuiDa - Guizhou University, Huaxi 7. 贵医 - GuiYi - Medical College Hospital, Ramada Plaza, Visa Office, Health Certificate Office 8. 贵州日报社 - Guizhou RiBaoShe - Visa Office, Health Certificate, Ramada Plaza 9. 河滨公园 - Hebin GongYuan - Hebin Park, Hebin Park Bus Station, Dicos 10. 和平路 - HePing Lu - North Catholic Church 11. 花果园 - HuaGuo Yuan - Work Permit Office 12. 火车站 - HuoCheZhan - Train Station, Gym, Spa, Forest City Inn, Train Station Muslim, Wall Mart 13. 花溪 - HuaXi - Huaxi Park, Guizhou University, 15. 甲秀楼 - JiaXiaLou - Jiaxiu Lou Tower, Xingli Department Store / Supermarket, Toys R' Us, KFC, Japanese Ramin, 16. 机场路口 - JiChang LuKou - Airport, KFC 17. 纪念塔 - JiNian Ta - Guiyang Grand Theatre 18. 黔灵公园 - QianLing GongYuan - QianLing Park, Howard Johnson Hotel and Buffet 19. 黔灵西路口 - QianLing Xi LuKou - Beijing JiaoZi, Protestant Church, 20. 沙冲路口 - ShaChong LuKou - Train Station WalMart 21. 陕西路 - XiaXiLu - 六广门 - LiuGuangMen - Leather and Pottery Story, Gym, 22. 省府路口 - ShengFu LuKou - Alcohol Market, Beijing Hualian, XiaoShi Zi Movie Theatre 23. 省医 - ShengYi - Provincial Hosp 24. 神奇路 - ShenQi Lu 25. 师大 - ShiDa 26. 天河潭 - TianHe Tan 27. 金阳客车站 - JinYang KeCheZhan 28. 体育馆 - TiYu Guan 29. 下合群路 - XiaheQun Lu 30. 小十字 - Xiao ShiZi 31. 油炸街 - YouZhaJie 32. 新路口 - Xinlu Kou 33. 阳明祠 - YangMing Ci 34. 优点大楼 - YouDian Da Lou 35. 云岩广场 - YunYan GuangChang 36. 紫林庵 - Zi Lin'An ( from googuizhou.weebly.com/transit-bus.html) Taxi Taxi- Taxis in Guiyang during the day start at 8 yuan and at night start at 10 yuan for the first 2 km and increase by 2 yuan for every 1km after that. Taxis can be hard to find during rush hour especially on main roads, if you are having problems finding a taxi, try a smaller road. If you have any problem with a taxi in Guiyang please contact the following: •Guiyang Taxi Complaining No.: 0851-5285496 Taxi at the Train Station - Across the street from the train station, past the prominent public bus area there is a taxi line, where metered taxis can be picked up anytime of the day. Sometimes the line can be a little long, or taxis very few, but one should not have to wait more than 5-10 minutes to get a taxi. A taxi to city center should be about 10-12 yuan. Taxi at the Airport - Right outside the exit of the airport there is a taxi line, these taxis are metered during the day, but late night sometimes one must barter. Taxis into city center should be about 40-60 yuan. Black Taxis - Guiyang has many black taxis. Most of the time these taxis work perfectly, but there have been a few cases of black taxi drivers either trying to rip-off foreigners or trying to commit even worse crimes, use them at your own risk. Prices in black taxis must be negotiated and the driver usually starts high, very rarely will you ever get a black taxi for less than what a metered taxi would cost, their existence stems from the difficultly to get a taxi a certain hours of the day in Guiyang. ( from googuizhou.weebly.com/taxi.html ) Five-Star Hotels Although Guiyang is a poor city, in the poorest province in China, it still boasts an incredibly wealthy class of individuals, businessmen and travelers who stay at Five-Star hotels. These hotels are cheaper than Five-Star hotels in other countries or even in other cities in China. They are also the best places to get western food if you have the money. Kempinski Sheraton Pullman This French 5-star hotel is foreign operated with a Chinese staff. Done to true 5-star quality the Pullman is a great choice for one who wants luxury on their vacation. The Pullman also has the best western buffet in town but is a little steep at 200 yuan / person. Empark Grand Hotel ( from googuizhou.weebly.com/5-star.html ) Four-Star Hotels Four-Star hotels are the best bet for Guiyang travelers who want a western standard to their rooms but do not want to pay the price Ramada The Ramada Grand Hotel is located 7kms to the railway station and 12kms to the airport. It is near Qianling Park and features a western buffet, swimming pool, gym, 100mbs/internet and more. Click on "Ramada" for more details Howard Johnson One of the first international hotels in Guiyang, the Howard Johnson still keeps up with the new hotels in town. It offers a cheaper, but still great western buffet that includes sushi. It along with the Ramada is also the only hotels with an indoor swimming pool. Being near Qianling Park, the Howard Johnson is probably your best bet for all around value. Novotel Downtown The Novotel Downtown just opened last year and is a quality 4-star hotel. The best part about it is its location. Right off of ZhongHua Road very near PenShuiChi, the Novotel allows for the easiest access to everything in the city. Trade Point ( from googuizhou.weebly.com/4-star.html ) Budget Hotels Guiyang is full of cheap hotels. They are all Chinese owned and range widely in quality, price and appearance. Sadly Guiyang does not have an international youth hostel, but one can get a nicer and cheaper room at one of these places. Warning: these hotels will not have any English speaking staff and some of them will not allow you to stay if you are a foreigner. Also many of these hotels you cannot book on an English website, so one must book it in person or on a Chinese website like qunar.com ( from googuizhou.weebly.com/budget.html ) Local Food SiWaWa - 丝娃娃 Local fresh vegetables inside a wrapped rice tortilla A local favorite right out of Guiyang, Siwawa is not only delicious, it is also vegetarian, and unlike a lot of other Chinese food contains very little oil. There are two types of Siwawa, one that is eaten at street stands and one that is eaten at a nicer restaurant. Eating Siwawa is simple, you choose the vegetables you and your eating partners wish to eat, you pick up a rice tortilla, then using Chopsticks take the vegetables you want, put it in, wrap it up and enjoy. Top 5 Siwawa Restaurants in Guiyang 1. Mr. Miaos siwawa- best in town balhbalhbalh address: link: Bean Hot Pot - DouMi HuoGuo - 豆米火锅 Tourists and locals alike can fulfill their gustatory pleasures by indulging in another Guiyang favorite, bean hot pot, in which a smorgasbord of meats and vegetables are cooked in a boiling bean soup. Unlike famous hot pots in Chongqing and Sichuan, bean hot pot pot is devoid of the peppers and spices that typically set unsuspecting foreigners' mouths ablaze. However, bean hot pot provides the opportunity to season various combinations of meats and vegetables in its delicious and hearty bean broth. At their table patrons are provided with a large pot containing a bean soup which is placed over a hot plate (or fire, depending on the restaurant you choose to patronize). Customers are then given the option to select numerous types of meats and vegetables to place in the piping hot soup. Best Bean Hot Pot Restaurants 1. Tu Feng Bean Hot Pot 土风豆米火锅 Miao Sour Soup Fish Hot Pot - Miao SuanTang Yu HuoGuo - 苗酸汤鱼火锅 A specialty coming out of Southeast Guizhou, Sour Fish Hot Pot is often regarded as a food foreigners will miss most once they leave Guizhou. The thick, sour broth is made from tomatoes and it permeates into whatever you put in the pot. Typically inside is a large river fish that soaks up the flavor and your selection of other ingredients, typically potatoes, tofu and cabbage. The hot pot can be eaten alone or with side dishes. Most locals will dip the food that comes out of the hotpot into a small bowl of liquid hot peppers. Best Sour Fish Soup Hot Pot 1. Old Kaili Sour Fish Soup - Top ranked by locals with a nice atmosphere, this restaurant gives you exactly what you need. 2. Miao Village Restaurant - Great flavored Sour Hot Pot in a little bit more modest of a setting than Old Kaili Local Snacks 1. Smelly Tofu - Chou DouFu - 臭豆腐 - Sounds gross, but add some spicy pepper and it is a great snack Best Local Lunch 1. Local Guiyang Intestine Noodle Soup 贵阳肠旺面 changwang mian - This restaurant only runs during lunch hours and is ALWAYS packed. Loved by locals, and light on the wallet, this local special is a must have.Best Local Dinner 1. Sour Soup Hotpot by the Stick restaurant - Well off the beaten path, this secret local hideout is not only ridiculously delicious but is also incredibly cheap and different. ( from googuizhou.weebly.com/local-food.html ) Foreign Food Guiyang has few foreigners but over the past five years this has started to change. New western restaurants and more imported goods are coming everyday Fast Food 1. KFC - Although lacking amazing western menu items such as the double down, KFC is a good break from Chinese food at decent prices. Breakfast sandwiches are highly recommended 2. Dicos - A Chinese knockoff of KFC that some say tastes better than KFC and is usually a few yuan cheaper. They also deliver. 3. CSC - A Chinese fast food restaurant with mostly rice dishes, a little more expensive than the local food, but cheaper than Dicos / KFC. 4. Master Kongs - Almost what one would expect a Chinese fast food restaurant to be in America. Pizza 1. Pizza Fun - A Chinese owned pizza buffet that takes one out of Guiyang and into America. Currently open in two locations 2. Pizza Hut - The only international pizza chain in Guizhou. Although a little expensive it is your best bet for pizza in town. 3. Jazzy Pizza - 4. Beibado Western Restaurants 1. Grandmas - Highly noted as the best western restaurant in town. Grandmas is the home of Guiyang's only real beef hamburger. 2. LA Grill - Formerly owned by an American, now locally owned, LA Grill offers great tasting tex-mex but at a steep price and small portions 3. Highlands - Although mostly a coffee shop, highlands is owned and operated by foreigners and has a few western food items. Panini is highly recommended 4. Brazilian BBQ Western Buffets - Kempinski - not open yet, but will feature a German brew-house and the best food in town. Currently has three shefs hired. - Sheraton - A great assortment of cheeses and other western cuisines - Pullman - Rated the best buffet in town, the Pullman has everything you could want at a steep price (200 yuan/person) - Howard Johnson - Not the best western buffet in town, but it tastes good, has great western selection and is comparatively cheap! (90 yuan / person) - Ramada - Like the Howard Johnson the Ramada is good, western and cheaper than the 5-stars in town. Korean / Thai / Japanese Thai - Bangkok Lotus - Banana Leaf - Amazing Thai food, with a foreign chef and musical entertainment, but very expensive! Expect to pay at least 70 yuan a dish Japanese Korean Imported Food Supermarkets 1. Carefore - The best imported food / alcohol section in town 2. Cheese Street - A Chinese market which sells bulk cheese and other imported goods. Hard to find, but is a real Guiyang Treasure. 2. Wal-Mart - American company, decent imported food section with three locations. 3. Xingli Department store Supermarkets - Nice Chinese supermarket in the bottom of the Xingli malls. Imported food is mostly Japanese and Korean but it has the largest imported wine and beer selections in town. 4. Imported Alcohol Store - A Chinese owned store with all the foreign liquor one would want, at standard imported prices. ( from googuizhou.weebly.com/foreign-food.html ) Chinese Food Chinese food is as diverse as the people and its land. There are eight famous types of Chinese food and thousands of local specialities in this vast country. If you are looking for local food, click here. This page shows where to find the best of the rest in Chinese cuisine, in Guiyang. Sichuan / Chongqing Food The most famous style of food in China, Sichuan / Chongqing food is known for itsmala (spicy and numbing) flavor. Sichuan food is what is found in most small family restaurants. (Click here for a full menu of Sichuan food) But Sichuan and Chongqing are most well known for its hotpots. The hotpots are often incredibly spicy, oily and delicious. Best Sichuan / Chongqing Dishes restaurants Best Sichuan / Chongqing Hotpot restaurants Muslim Food A favorite of foreigners in China, Muslim food comes from the Hui and UyghurMuslim populations located in North and Northwest China. The Hui and Uyghurpeople have different cuisines but they taste similar. The Hui people's most famous food is LanZhou La Mian (Lanzhou Pulled noodles) where the Uyghurs most famous food is Xinjiang DaPan Ji (Xinjiang big plate of Chicken). The pulled noodles are made by hand, topped with your choice of meat, potato and vegetables with a slightly spicy sauce covering all of it. The noodles are best ordered fried, but can also come in a soup. Da Pan Ji is a massive plate of chicken, potatoes, vegetables and sometimes tofu that is smothered in a delicious spicy sauce. One must eat this with the Xinjiang nan bread for the full flavor effect. The cuisine is much more vast than this so pick anything on the menu and you are bound to have a delightful meal! Best Muslim Restaurants in Guiyang 1. Train Station Xinjiang Uyghur Restaurant 2. Muslim Street Xinjiang Uyghur Restaurant 3. Guizhou Normal College LaMian muslim Beijing Food 1. Beijing Jiaozi - delicious Chinese dumplings with a friendly staff and good prices Other Best Vegetarian Food 1. Buddhist Temple Vegetarian Restaurant - An amazing experience in the middle of downtown, the Buddhist Temple Restaurant serves hundreds of dishes of Chinese cuisine but only use meat substitutes. These substitutes often taste better than the real thing. The end result is a meal that is delicious and healthy. Also inside is a small Buddhist temple. ( from googuizhou.weebly.com/chinese-food.html ) Menu In Guizhou and all over China there are too many restaurants to even count. Most of these are called 家常菜 (family style) restaurants. These often have the same types of dishes. Here is a list of some of the most famous items on these menus. Appetizers 开胃品 1. 炸花生 - Zha HuaSheng - Deep-Fried Peanuts 2. 凉拌黄瓜 - LiangBan HuangGua - Cold cumcumber with spice 3. 豆米 - Dou Mi - Glutinous rice with spicePork 猪肉 1. 糖醋里脊 - TangCu LiJi - Sweet and Sour Pork 2. 鱼香肉丝 - YuXiang RouSi - Sour and Spicy Pork Strip 3. 京酱肉丝 - JingJiang RouSi - Saucy meat with plum sauce and mini tortillas 4. 排骨 - Pai Gu - Ribs 5. 水煮肉片 - ShuiZhu RouPian - Pork Slices with a spicy soup base 6. 蒜苗炒肉 - SuanMiao ChaoRou - Garlic Shoots with Pork Chicken - 鸡肉 1. 工包鸡丁 - GongBao JiDing - Chicken with Peanuts 2. 铁板鸡片 - TieBan Ji Pian - Sizzling Chicken with Onions 3. 腰果鸡丁 - YaoGuo Ji Ding - Chicken and Cashews Beef - 牛肉 1. 铁板牛肉 - TieBan Niu Rou - Sizzling beef and onions 2. 孜然牛肉 - ZiRan Niu Rou - Deep fried beef and cumin 3. 红烧牛肉 - HongShao Niu Rou - Beef in brown sauce 4. 牛肉炒大葱 - NiuRou Chao Da Cong - Beef and onions Vegetables - 蔬菜 1. 干煸土豆丝 - GanBian TuDouSi - Deep Friend Shredding Potatoes 2. 炸薯条 - Zha ShuTiao - Chinese French Fries 3. 土豆泥 - TuDou Ni - Mashed Potatoes 4. 西红柿炒鸡蛋 - XiHongSe ChaoJiDan - Fried Egg and Tomato 5. 干煸棒豆 - GanBian BangDou - Crispy fried green beans 6. 干煸四季豆 - GanBian SiJiDou - Crisy fried beans 7. 西兰花 - XiLanHua - Broccoli Vegetables - 蔬菜 1. 花菜 - Hua Cai - Cauliflower 2. 菠菜 - Bo Cai - Spinach 3. 空心菜 - Kong Xin Cai - Chinese Water Spinach 4. 白菜 - BaiCai - Chinese Cabbage 5. 玉米 - YuMi - Corn 6. 茄炸 - QieZha - Breaded Eggplant with meat filling 7. 生菜 - Sheng Cai - Lettuce Tofu - 豆腐 1. 麻婆豆腐 - MaPo DouFu - Tofu chunks in spicy sauce 2. 家常豆腐 - Homestyle tofu 3. 青椒豆腐干 - Smoke tofu strips and green peppers 4. 日本豆腐 - Japanese tou fu Staples 1. 米饭 - Mi fan - rice 2.蛋炒饭 - Dan ChaoFan - Egg fried rice 3. 饺子 - jiaozi - Chinese dumplings 4. 面条 - mian tiao - Noodles 5. 包子 - BaoZi - Steamed Bun with various fillings 6. 馒头 - ManTou - Chinese steamed bread 7. 馄饨 - HunTun - Wonton Soup - 汤 1. 酸辣汤 - SuanLa Tang - Hot and Sour Soup 2. 西红柿鸡蛋汤 - HongXiShi JiDanTang - Tomato and Egg soup 3. 白菜豆腐汤 - Tofu and Cabbage soup 4. 三鲜汤 - SanXianTang - Meatball, Veggie soup Hot Pot - 火锅 1. 清汤 - QingTang - Clear (light, no/little spice) hotpot 2. 酸汤 - Sour Hot Pot 3. 麻辣汤 - Hot and Spicy Hot Pot 4. 豆米火锅 - Brown Bean Hot Pot 5. 豆花火锅 - Special Tofu Hot pot 6. 干锅鸡 - Dry Chicken Hotpot Drinks - 饮料 1. 可口可乐 - kekou kele - Coke 2. 百事可乐 - baishi kele - Pepsi 3. 雪碧 - XueBi - Sprite 4. 茶水 - ChaShui - Tea 5. 矿泉水 - KuangQuan Shui Spring Water 6. 开水 - kai shui - hot water 7. 啤酒 - Pi Jiu - Beer 8. 葡萄酒 - PuTao Jiu - Red Wine 9. 咖啡 - KaFei - Coffee Desserts - 甜点 1. 拔丝苹果 - BaSi Ping Guo - Caramelized apple chunks 2. 菠萝飞饼 - BoLuo FeiBing - Pineapple Pastry 3. 南瓜饼 - NanGuo Bing - Chinese pumpkin bread Recipes Although Guizhou does not have many foreign restaurants, it does not mean you cannot get foreign food out of your Kitchen. This section will help you make delicious western food out of items you can find from most Chinese Supermarkets - Basic Pasta Noodles - Wal-Mart and Carefore both have Italian pasta but it can be expensive, make it yourself for 2 yuan! - Basic White Sauce - The closest thing you can get to Alfredo - Beer Bread - A good western style bread. ( from googuizhou.weebly.com/menu--recipes.html) Guiyang Bars / Clubs China is known for its heavy drinking culture. And in China, Guizhou is famous for its heavier drinking culture. It makes sense as Guizhou is the home of the "National Liquor" Moutai. This gives Guiyang a slew of bars and KTV's but because of its small, young/middle class and foreign population there are very few international type places and no western style bars. Bars The Guiyang Bar scene is much different than other cities in China. Most bars consist of dimly lit areas with giant puffy couches to sit on and drink cheap beer. These are great for being with your friends but it can make it difficult to find new friends. Also there are no western style bars in town. Top Bars in Guiyang 1. 2. Clubs Guiyang has a few clubs in town. They are all Chinese owned and operated, but from time to time will have a foreign DJ playing. A good time for those who love them and a strange cultural experience for those who have not been to one yet. Going to a club in China is a must at least once, but terrible if you go too often. Top Clubs in Guiyang 1. 2. KTV KTV is something everyone must do at least once in China. Round up your friends, rent a room, get some beers and have the time of your life. Top KTV in Guiyang 1. 2.. Other ( from googuizhou.weebly.com/bars-clubs-and-ktv.html ) Coffee and Tea Guiyang is a city full of Coffee and Tea shops. It seems that along every street coffee and tea shops are every other shop. The best part is that in Guiyang all coffee houses are locally owned, not one Starbucks can be found! The following are a few of the best local coffee shops in town. Createa (宜北町 - Yi Bei Ding) The Starbucks of Guiyang, Createa is a local Chain with over 8 locations that gives you fast service, cheap prices and a busy atmosphere with generic jazz music playing in the background. The drinks are good, but the teas are better than the coffees. Createa also offers desserts such as cheesecake for the lowest prices in town. The menu is in English but the staff does not speak English but one can easily point at the menu to place your order. Free wi-fi is available, but you must ask the counter for the password. Here is a map of all the Createas in Guiyang. Soil Cafe (土壤咖啡) The high end coffee shop of Guiyang， Soil cafe has emerged out of nowhere a year ago to now having over five locations. The atmosphere is really nice, albeit a little confusing. The drinks are expensive and the service can be a bit slow, especially at the main store near Guizhou Normal University. The place is not meant to be a Starbucks but more of a place to meet with friends and spend an entire afternoon chatting or doing work. It really works well with Guiyang's relaxed pace of life, but if you are want a quick cup of coffee head to Createa instead. Free Wi-Fi available, just ask a server for the password. Here is a map of all the Soil Cafe's in town. Highlands Highlands was started by an American five years ago but this year the ownership was handed over to a Singaporean and a Korean. Highlands offers an English speaking staff, a comfortable atmosphere and a great foreign food menu including paninis. The prices are in-between Createa and Soil Cafe and the drinks and food are great. The only problem with Highlands is the overly strict rule enforcement that levees a sitting tax if you do not order, even if a friend did, a no outside drinks of food policy (unlike every other coffee shop in Guizhou, not even a bottle of water is not allowed from the outside even if you ordered a coffee) and an even stranger no pictures policy. That being said, the new management will hopefully change this practice. Free wifi is available. Wings of Tea Other Local Coffee / Tea Shops Guiyang has so many coffee/tea shops that it is impossible to list them all. But here is a list of GoGuizhou.com's other favorites. 1. Zero Cafe 2. 3. ( from googuizhou.weebly.com/coffee--tea.html ) Hot Springs and Spas Guiyang is known for its laid back atmosphere and who would not want to relax here when there is an abundance of hot springs, natural and man-made in such a small area. Here is some of the best around. Poly Hot Springs Tianyi Forest Hot Springs Xifeng Hot Springs Wudang Hot Springs ( from googuizhou.weebly.com/hot-springs-and-spas.html) TongRen Living Living as a Laowai There are not many foreigners in Tongren. In fact, according to the police bureau, there are exactly 7 laowai in Tongren right now, all of whom are teachers. Life in Tongren is pretty relaxed. The tough part about living in a small rural community is that very few people have ever met, let alone seen, a laowai before. Therefore when you are walking down the street, riding the bus, or having dinner in any given restaurant, you can expect consistent stares and an occasional "hullo" from a brave passer by. There is one known blog about life in Tongren. Tongren blog How to Arrive / Leave Tongren does have an airport, but you can only arrive from Guiyang and Shanghai. The train station in town was built in 2006 and is very small, however, there are daily trains to Shanghai to the east and Chengdu to the west. To go south by train, you have to travel by bus to the town of Yuping or take the train one stop east and transfer in Huaihua. Where to work: Really the only jobs for foreigners in Tongren are teaching jobs. There are two universities in the town, but the salary at both is small, especially when compared to schools in more affluent provinces or autonomous regions. There are several private English training schools who offer competitive salaries that include housing, water, and electricity. ( from googuizhou.weebly.com/living1.html) Wumeng Mountain The Wumeng Mountain national geopark is on the eastern slope of the qinhai tibet plateu and in the transition region from the yunnan-guzhou plateau to the hills in guangxi. Wumeng mountain si mainly composed of the karst geological remains and landscapes, plains in the mountaihns, valleys, paleeontological fossils and anthropoligical sites. The national geopark consists of two gardens and five scenic zones. Beipan River Grand Canyon YuShe National Forest Park The Wumeng Mountain national geopark is on the eastern slope of the Qinghai Tibetan plateu and in the transition region from the Yunnan-Guizhou plateau to the hills in Guangxi. Wumeng mountain si mainly composed of the karst geological remains and landscapes, plains in the mountaihns, valleys, paleeontological fossils and anthropoligical sites. The national geopark consists of two gardens and five scenic zones. Liuzhi Suoga ( from googuizhou.weebly.com/traveling.html ) Liupanshui 六盘水 - The Cool Capital Liupanshui is both a name for a city and prefecture in western Guizhou. Liupanshui is also the second largest and most developed city in Guizhou. The city itself has about 300,000 residents while the prefecture has close to 3,000,000. Liupanshui gets its name from the three main cities that combined to create the prefecture Liuzhi, Panxian and Shui Cheng. The city is known as the "cool city" or the "cool capital" because of its cool summer temperatures. The city is divided into three main areas huang tu po, The New Development Are (开发区kai fa qu） and the dragon mountain area. Huang tu po is the oldest part of the city and because of this it is the most pedestrian friendly area. There are many great shops, restaurants and supermarkets in this area. it is also home to the LPS city government. The new development zone has all been built in the last 10 years. It is the most developed area of the city which holds the people's square, two large parks, coffee shops, nice Chinese hotels, some department stores, the PSB office and a Wal Mart. The Dragon Mountain area is the newest addition to LPS city. It is up on a hill that makes a pretty picturesque scenery during a sunny day. Most of the buildings in this area have been built in the last few years and much of the area is still under construction. This area is home to the LPS provincial government offices, the number three (best) middle school and is also the future home of the LPS foreign language center. Living as a Foreigner Although the city is the second largest in Guizhou and is also one of the main hubs of the provinces' economic development, the expat population constantly fluctuates between 5-10. Most of them work as teachers but there are a few who are studying Chinese. The city is much more of a traditional Chinese place with little exposure to foreigners. Most of the time you will be greeted on the streets with stares (of curiosity not contempt), the oft-stated "hello!"or "OOO laowai!" and great smiles from the local people. That being said the city itself boasts a small Chinese middle/upper class who have had previous experience with foreigners and some nice Chinese accommodations to take you out of the sometimes harsh conditions. The level of English speaking in the community is very low. Liupanshui is a great place to live but if a laowai is not accustom to Chinese culture or know some basic Chinese (or is not willing to learn these things) it can be very difficult to live in this city. That being said if you do have a basic understanding of Chinese and its culture the city can be a really fulfilling place to experience. Laowais who have lived in LIupanshui typically say the food, people and the surrounding scenery are the best aspects of the city. While the worst part of living in Liupanshui is the constant cold and wet weather during the winter, think Seattle with the lack of central heat. Getting in / Out Train Liupanshui's train station is one of the main train hubs in Guizhou. Liupanshui has trains that go all the way to Kunming in the west, Guiyang to the east, and Chengdu to the north. To buy train tickets you must buy them in person at the train station or in one of the small ticket booths located around the city within 10 days prior to your departure. Liupanshui to Guiyang / Guiyang to Liupanshui Guiyang is the closest large city with a size-able foreign population and some international goods. At all times there is the ability to catch a train to Guiyang or Liupanshui as there are 30 trains that travel to Guiyang and about the same that come back to Liupanshui daily. There are three different types of trains that travel between the cities. All of the trains have AC. Two types of the trains take 3 hours and 45 minutes (any train with a K) and then there are three trains that take 2 hours and 45 minutes (any train with a T) The two types of K trains are priced at 23 yuan ($4) and 43 yuan ($8) oneway. If on a budget I recommend the 23 yuan train because the 43 yuan trains don't arrive any faster nor do they provide any extra comfort. Both of these trains have hard seats (benches) that face each other. If you happen to go on a weekend or holiday these will be very full with a strong likelihood that you will be crammed or standing the entire train ride. If this happens try to find the dining room car which usually resides in the middle of the train between the sleeper section and the hard seats. While there order one dish and enjoy the comfort while you eat your meal over 4 hours. Also if you have the cash sleepers are available on these trains. The T trains were just added in October of 2010. They are second hand fast trains taken from the east of China and are quite nice. Most seats are bucket type, have ample leg room and face forward like a standard western train. These trains also usually are less full, quieter and they are smoke free. The tickets cost 64 yuan ($11) for a regular seat and 77 yuan ($13) for a "VIP" seat. The VIP seats aren't worth the extra money. Full Schedule of trains from LPS to Guiyang Full Schedule of trains from Guiyang to LPS Liupanshui to Kunming / Kunming to Liupanshui Kunming is the closest city with a McDonalds. It is also a foreign backpacker mecca, a hub for many national natural wonders and just a wonderful city all the way around. It takes between 6 hours and 30 minutes to 9 hours to arrive in Kunming. If you wish to get to Kunming I recommend the T60 overnight train with a top sleeper bed. Liupanshui to Kunming Schedule Kunming to Liupanshui Schedule Liupanshui to Chengdu / Chengdu to Liupanshui Chengdu is metropolitan city of 10,000,000 people 12-15 hours north of Liupanshui. It is home of the American consulate for Southwest China. There are 7 trains daily to Chengdu. Liupanshui to Chengdu Schedule Chengdu to Liupanshui Schedule Liupanshui is also the best place to stay overnight on your way to CaoHai lake in WeiNing. There are a few trains a day that go to Weining, with a ticket only costing 10 yuan and a total travel time of 1 and a half hours. Bus station 客车站 The Liupanshui bus station is a 10 minute walk from the train station has buses running all day to many different cities in Guizhou and beyond. Most often the buses will be more expensive than the train but the station is also less crowded, and easier to get a ticket. Because of Guizhou's rough terrian bus rides are quite the adventure and they also take close to as long or longer than taking a train. That being said buses serve many smaller communities that train stations don't go to such as Bijie and Xingyi. Getting Around The city of Liupanshui lies in a valley which makes it very narrow, this makes getting lost in Liupanshui very difficult. The main road that goes throughout the city and were most of the important businesses, residential areas and places to see reside is Zhong Shan Da Dao (钟山大道). Zhong Shan da dao is a long, wide two way road, Public Transportation The only method of public transportation is bus. There are about 10 bus lines that go throughout the city. Buses start running at 7am and close at 9pm (although some of the smaller lines open later and close earlier). Every bus is 1 yuan/person. The 1 line is the most important bus route as it goes the entire length of Zhong Shan in both directions. The city is currently revamping their bus fleet and stops, more detailed information about buses will come soon. Taxis Taxis are ubquitious throughout the city. Most of the time they are very easy to hail and very cheap to use. The meter starts at 5 yuan (about $.75) for the first two km. Make sure to tell the taxi driver that you want a metered taxi (da biao!) and you should rarely ever have a ride that is more than 15 yuan ($2.50). Taxis can be difficult to get during rush hour and at the train station. Especially at midnight at the trainstation it is almost impossible to get a taxi by yourself and metered. If this is the case you should never pay over 15 yuan to get to your destination and 10 yuan is a good price. Also, especially late at night it is common for taxi drivers to pick up other passengers, this is ok, you will not be charged more for this. Although rare, if you get in a situation where the taxi driver wants to overcharge you, ask him for a receipt (Da piao), if he won't give it to you tell him you will call the police as it is in their licence agreement that they must be able to give you a recepit for the taxi ride. There are also three wheel taxis that can slowly take you anywhere. Only take these if you are having trouble finding a regular taxi. These vehicals have no meter but you should never pay over 10 yuan for a ride. They are also very small and dangerious so take them at your peril "Black Taxis" are unmarked and illegal taxis. Sometimes they can work out fine sometimes not. Take them at your own risk. Shopping Liupanshui has many supermarkets as well as outdoor markets. The big two supermarket chains in Liupanshui are WalMart (1 location) and Jiahui (3 locations). Both of these supermarkets have about the same amount of goods at close to the same prices (although I have found things to be a little cheaper at Jiahui). Other small supermarkets also exist. WalMart is located in Kai Fa Qu right across the street from Ren Min Guang Chang on the third floor of the Sun Center building. WalMart has the largest selection of International goods in Liupanshui but that is not saying much. Currently it has two small shelves full of mostly Japanese and Korean snacks. But some western food is also available such as pasta, pasta sauce, some cereals and other random western sauces. The international goods that come in are not always in stock and what WalMart carries fluctuates in random ways. WalMart is also your best bet to find foreign alcohols. They have a decent selection of International Vodka, whiskey and red wine. Other locations have it but they are most likely counterfeit. If you want good bread go to the yi xing long da chao shi (一兴隆大超市) in Hong tu po. The supermarket is across the street from Dicos and has a large blue sign at its entrance. At the bottom floor the bread section has the normal strange looking sweet breads but on the top shelf they have buns. Yi xing supermarket produced these buns for the Dicos across the street and they taste just like a bun one would find in America. Clothes Like most Chinese cities along the streets of LPS is one clothing store after another. On Zhong Shan road in the new development zone there are a few Nike, Addidas stores as well as some higher end clothing shops. The Huang tu po area has two main locations where you can buy very cheap knock off goods. One is located on the corner across the street from the KFC, the other is situated under the sports stadium. MedicalLiupanshui city is the major medical care center for the region. The best hospital is Liupanshui People's Hospital (六盘水人民医院）. The hospital is old and does not meet the standards set by the American consulate to have any work done other than the most basic services. There are no English speaking doctors. That being said in June 2011 the new hospital will open with much better facilities. The closest English speaking doctors are in Guiyang at the Guiyang Medical School hospital. The closest hospital recommended by the American consulate is in Kunming. Information for English Speaking Doctors in Guiyang Where to Work Liupanshui currently has three schools with foreign teachers. The current job openings include: www.esljobs.com/china/esl-teachers-needed-in-liupanshui-c... Teach young learners or adults in LPS Where to Study - There is an intensive Chinese language program at Liupanshui Normal University. The program offers one on one instruction with great mandarin speakers in a classroom setting. Currently there are two students enrolled. Coffee/Tea Over the past two years Liupanshui has had a renaissance of coffee and tea shops. Growing seemingly as fast as its middle class every new area has many coffee and tea houses. Once nice thing about Liupanshui coffee bars is that there are no chain coffee places, all of the shops are locally owned, which brings friendly service and a relaxing atmosphere. The only down side to that is especially for coffee some shops have very inexperienced with the drink making process itself. The following are the four best coffee/tea shops in town. Wayne (Wizard of Oz) and Tims (TT) - Although not the official names, the local laowai know the first two coffee shops by the first name of the owners. Wayne and Tim are cousins, they are incredibly friendly and both speak English well. The coffee shops are located right next to each other, on the small street next to the Dico's fast food restaurant near the People's Square. They both offer a relaxing homey atmosphere and have wonderful drinks. The main difference between the two shops are although they both serve alcohol, Wayne's only serves cocktails and wine as Tims offers a selection of beers to go along with your coffee. Cool Choose - Despite the funny name, Cool Choose is the closest thing Liupanshui has to a Starbucks / American coffee house feel. Cool Choose is north of the people's square, across the street from the Vito Hotel / China Telecom building. Not only does Cool Choose have great coffee and tea but it is also home to the only Cheese Cake in town. Detail Coffee - Located on the second floor of the cool city palace, Detail coffee has a very friendly staff, an elegant, urban atmosphere and a great view of the people's square. Bars Clubs - Liupanshui is home to two night clubs jiahui and guohui. They are both located near the People's Square. Both offer dancing to blaringly loud, techo remixes of old American pop/hip-hop songs. The nightlife also ends early. Most nights the club will be cleared by midnight - one o'clock. That does not mean they are not fun but one must arrive early. ( from googuizhou.weebly.com/liupanshui.html ) Huangguoshu Waterfall 黄果树瀑布 ( from googuizhou.weebly.com/huangguoshu-waterfall.html) Historical Sites From the ancient to modern history, temples to the political meeting sites, Guizhou has many great, off-the-path historical areas to see! Zunyi Meeting Site Qingyan Ancient Town ( from googuizhou.weebly.com/historical-sites.html) English Tour Guides English tours in Guizhou are few and far between, but that makes them much more exciting. Lost is the massive buses going to tourist attractions with expensive ticket prices and long waits and found is very personal tours, from excellent, knowledgeable and local guides. Here are a few companies with listed tours and also a list of companies that do individual tours. Top Guizhou Tours 1. ToGuizhou , www.toguizhou.com/, - A wonderful local who started his own tour company. He does the best tours of minority festivals in Guizhou. 2. Absolute China Tours , www.absolutechinatours.com/Guiyang-tours/ 3. China Tour Guides , www.chinatourguide.com/guizhou/- Wonderful Minority tours for an affordable price ( from googuizhou.weebly.com/english-tours.html) Guizhou Normal University Guizhou Normal University is located in Guiyang, China, which is the capital of China's Guizhou province. The university's main campus is located close to the center of the city, and its campus is encompassed by the often bustling and lively atmosphere of downtown Guiyang. GNU is in close proximity to Pen Shui chi, which is a center for food, shopping and night life in Guiyang. GNU currently comprises two campuses, Baoshan (main campus) and Baiyun, and the construction of a third campus is currently underway in Huaxi district. Originally named National Guiyang Teachers College, the University was founded in 1941, and renamed Guiyang Teachers College after the creation of the People's Republic of China in 1950. In 1985 it was officially named Guizhou Normal University (GNU). In 1996 GNU was officially designated as one of the "Key Universities" of Guizhou Province. GNU was honored as an "Outstanding University" in the Undergraduate Teaching Assessment conducted by the Ministry of education in 2008, and in February of 2010 GNU was authorized to grant PhD's by the State Council Academic Degrees Committee. Teaching English Teaching English - Guizhou Normal University is always looking for foreign teachers. Teacher usually have 16 hours of classes a week and an English Corner. Pay is around 6000 yuan / month and a free apartment. Apartments are old but nice. Click here and go to Contact US to apply International Scope GNU is a participant in the Ministry of Education's "Program of Partner Assistance with Western Universities," and currently engages in an exchange program with Ohio State University. GNU has also established exchange programs with schools in Korea, Japan, and Thailand. Since 2006 GNU has also cooperated with Xiamen University, a nationally prestigious university within China, to forge a "partner assistance" relationship. GNU currently has a student body numbering more than 25,000 undergraduate and graduate students, most of whom hail from Guizhou Province. The university has approximately 1,400 full time teachers, some of whom's work has been honored by the Guizhou Provincial Government as well as the government of China. According to GNU's website "In the past five years, the university has undertaken 79 national research projects and 430 provincial and ministerial research projects. The university has received 67 provincial awards for its achievements." GNU consists of 22 schools, including an independent college named Qiushi college. Other schools include the School of Chinese Language and Literature, the School of Law, The School of Foreign Languages, and the School of Fine Arts. There are a variety of academic programs available for students to pursue, including 52 degree programs for undergraduate students, and 42 programs available to post graduate students. Library The libraries on GNU's campuses collectively hold more than 2 million printed books, 540,000 e-books, 100,000 e-books in foreign languages, and 2,544 foreign and domestic newspapers. The library on GNU's Baoshan campus is also the location of a Provincial Information Center, the National Protection Unit of Ancient Books, and the center of "Document Sharing Technology of Guizhou Province." Other key facilities include the University hospital and a newly constructed health center at Baoshan campus. External Links Official website : www.gznu.edu.cn/ Official website (English) : 210.40.64.7/english/index.htm Studying Chinese Studying Chinese Chinese Language Program Guizhou NormalUniversity recruits students from various countries to study Chinese language and culture courses. The students may study 15 language courses and about 15 Chinese culture courses for at least half a year. If students achieve a qualified score, they can get a Chinese Language Culture Study certificate.Instruction will be given in speaking, listening comprehension, reading, newspaper reading, writing and ancient Chinese. Special courses can be arranged to meet the students'needs. The teaching-hour will be at least 20 hours. Long-term Programs Required CoursesLong term programs are available Short-term Programs Guizhou NormalUniversity recruits students and teachers from various countries to study Chinese language and culture. The available short-term Chinese language and culture programs are offered as following all year round. 1. Chinese Language Learning Program (Half a year or one year) 2. Guizhou Minority Culture Study Program during winter holiday 3. Guizhou Minority Culture Study Program during summer holiday 4. Cultural Field Trip to Sister Festival of Miao people and Drum-tower Festival of Dong People 5. Seeking Cooperative Research Fellows Application ProcedureThe period of study ranges from one and half year to one year. The spring semester begins on March 1, and the autumn semester begins on September 1. Applicants need to apply 2 months ahead of time. They need to present their resume, application form, health certification, 6 photos, letter of recommendation, an education certificate, and a photocopy of their passport at one time to the Department of International Relations of GNU. Students are expected to arrive at least a week before the new semester begins. Tuition cannot be refunded when a student discontinues studying for any reason.Application form:http://www.gznu.edu.cn/survey/org/wsb/extra_bits/app/student_application.pdf Tuition:6000 yuan / term for a general visiting student; 8000-11000 yuan / term for a visiting scholarRegistration Fee: 500 yuan Contacts:The Department of International Relations, Guizhou Normal UniversityNo. 116 BaoshanBeiLu Guiyang, Guizhou, 550001 P. R. ChinaTel: +86-851- 6701140 / 6742053Fax: +86-851-6766891E-mail: wsc@gznu.edu.cn ( from googuizhou.weebly.com/guizhou-normal-university.html ) Who we are Ni hao! Welcome to GoGuizhou.com, we are two American volunteer teachers who love living in Guizhou. Our lives have been significantly changed and touched since moving here and we both consider Guizhou "home". Our travels throughout Guizhou have taken us from small minority villages in the northeast to stunning hikes in the mountains of the southwest and everything in between. Our purpose is not to make money, but to have others share in the joy we have been given from this land. Take a look at the site, hopefully gain some new perspectives on Guizhou and contact us if you want to add your own touch to the site! Questions? Comments? Want to help make the site? EMAIL US! : emyxter@gmail.com ( from googuizhou.weebly.com/contact-us.html)

The United States Border Patrol is a federal law enforcement agency within U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP), a component of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). Its 20,200 Agents[1] are primarily responsible for immigration and border law enforcement as codified in the Immigration and Nationality Act. Their duty is to prevent terrorists and terrorist weapons from entering the United States and to deter, detect, and apprehend illegal aliens and individuals involved in the illegal drug trade who enter the United States other than through designated ports of entry. Additionally, the CBP enforces federal controlled substances laws (as codified in the Controlled Substances Act) when violations occur or are found during the enforcement of federal immigration laws, via delegated authority from the Drug Enforcement Administration. Note that there are two personnel segments of U.S. Customs and Border Protection that people often confuse with each other, the CBP Officer [1], who wears a blue uniform and the Border Patrol Agent [2] who wears a green uniform. Contents [hide] 1 History 2 Strategy 2.1 1986: Employer sanctions and interior enforcement 2.2 Inspection stations 2.2.1 El Paso Sector's Operation Hold the Line 2.2.2 San Diego Sector's Operation Gatekeeper 2.2.3 Tucson Sector's Operation Safeguard 2.3 Northern border 2.4 Border Patrol moves away from interior enforcement 2.5 The new strategy 3 Capabilities 4 Expansion 5 Special Operations Group 5.1 Other specialized programs 6 Border Patrol organization 6.1 Border Patrol Sectors 7 Training 7.1 Uniforms 7.2 Border Patrol (OBP) Ranks and Insignia 7.2.1 Border Patrol Shoulder Ornaments 8 Awards 8.1 Newton-Azrak Award for Heroism 9 Border Patrol Uniform Devices 10 Equipment 10.1 Weapons 10.2 Transportation 11 Line of duty deaths 12 Armed incursions 13 Ramos and Compean 14 Criticisms 14.1 Ineffective 14.2 Allegations of abuse 14.3 Corruption 15 National Border Patrol Council 16 National Border Patrol Museum 17 In popular culture 17.1 Books 17.2 Film 17.2.1 Documentaries 18 See also 19 References 20 External links 21 External Video 21.1 GAO and OIG Reports [edit] History Immigration inspectors, circa 1924Mounted watchmen of the United States Immigration Service patrolled the border in an effort to prevent illegal crossings as early as 1904, but their efforts were irregular and undertaken only when resources permitted. The inspectors, usually called "mounted guards", operated out of El Paso, Texas. Though they never totaled more than 75, they patrolled as far west as California trying to restrict the flow of illegal Chinese immigration. In March 1915, Congress authorized a separate group of mounted guards, often referred to as "mounted inspectors". Most rode on horseback, but a few operated automobiles, motorcycles and boats. Although these inspectors had broader arrest authority, they still largely pursued Chinese immigrants trying to avoid the National Origins Act and Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882. These patrolmen were Immigrant Inspectors, assigned to inspection stations, and could not watch the border at all times. U.S. Army troops along the southwest border performed intermittent border patrolling, but this was secondary to "the more serious work of military training." Non-nationals encountered illegally in the U.S. by the army were directed to the immigration inspection stations. Texas Rangers were also sporadically assigned to patrol duties by the state, and their efforts were noted as "singularly effective". The Border Patrol was founded on May 28, 1924 as an agency of the United States Department of Labor to prevent illegal entries along the Mexico–United States border and the United States-Canada border. The first two border patrol stations were in El Paso, Texas and Detroit, Michigan.[2] Additional operations were established along the Gulf Coast in 1927 to perform crewman control to insure that non-American crewmen departed on the same ship on which they arrived. Additional stations were temporarily added along the Gulf Coast, Florida and the Eastern Seaboard during the sixties when in Cuba triumphed the Cuban Revolution and emerged the Cuban Missile Crisis. Prior to 2003, the Border Patrol was part of the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS), an agency that was within the U.S. Department of Justice. INS was disbanded in March 2003 when its operations were divided between CBP, United States Citizenship and Immigration Services, and U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement. The priority mission of the Border Patrol, as a result of the 9/11 attacks and its merging into the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) is to prevent terrorists and terrorist weapons from entering the United States of America. However, the Border Patrol's traditional mission remains as the deterrence, detection and apprehension of illegal immigrants and individuals involved in the illegal drug trade who generally enter the United States other than through designated ports of entry. The Border Patrol also operates 33 permanent interior checkpoints along the southern border of the United States. Currently, the U.S. Border Patrol employs over 20,200 agents (as of the end of fiscal year 2009),[3] who are specifically responsible for patrolling the 6,000 miles of Mexican and Canadian international land borders and 2,000 miles of coastal waters surrounding the Florida Peninsula and the island of Puerto Rico. Agents are assigned primarily to the Mexico–United States border, where they are assigned to control drug trafficking and illegal immigration.[4] Patrols on horseback have made a comeback since smugglers have been pushed into the more remote mountainous regions, which are hard to cover with modern tracking strategies.[5] [edit] Strategy [edit] 1986: Employer sanctions and interior enforcement Border Patrol Agents with a Hummer and Astar patrol for illegal entry into U.S.The Border Patrol's priorities have changed over the years. In 1986, the Immigration Reform and Control Act placed renewed emphasis on controlling illegal immigration by going after the employers that hire illegal immigrants. The belief was that jobs were the magnet that attracted most illegal immigrants to come to the United States. The Border Patrol increased interior enforcement and Form I-9 audits of businesses through an inspection program known as "employer sanctions". Several agents were assigned to interior stations, such as within the Livermore Sector in Northern California. Employer sanctions never became the effective tool it was expected to be by Congress. Illegal immigration continued to swell after the 1986 amnesty despite employer sanctions. By 1993, Californians passed Proposition 187, denying benefits to illegal immigrants and criminalizing illegal immigrants in possession of forged green cards, I.D. cards and Social Security Numbers. It also authorized police officers to question non-nationals as to their immigration status and required police and sheriff departments to cooperate and report illegal immigrants to the INS. Proposition 187 drew nationwide attention to illegal immigration. [edit] Inspection stations United States Border Patrol Interior Checkpoints are inspection stations operated by the USBP within 100 miles of a national border (with Mexico or Canada) or in the Florida Keys. As federal inspection stations are also operated by the Mexican government within 50 km of its borders where they are officially known as a "Garita de Revisión." or Garitas, they are known also by that name to Latinos. [edit] El Paso Sector's Operation Hold the Line El Paso Sector Chief Patrol Agent (and future U.S. congressman) Silvestre Reyes started a program called "Operation Hold the Line". In this program, Border Patrol agents would no longer react to illegal entries resulting in apprehensions, but would instead be forward deployed to the border, immediately detecting any attempted entries or deterring crossing at a more remote location. The idea was that it would be easier to capture illegal entrants in the wide open deserts than through the urban alleyways. Chief Reyes deployed his agents along the Rio Grande River, within eyesight of other agents. The program significantly reduced illegal entries in the urban part of El Paso, however, the operation merely shifted the illegal entries to other areas. [edit] San Diego Sector's Operation Gatekeeper A Border Patrol Jeep stands watch over the U.S.-Mexico border at San Ysidro, California.San Diego Sector tried Silvestre Reyes' approach of forward deploying agents to deter illegal entries into the country. Congress authorized the hiring of thousands of new agents, and many were sent to San Diego Sector.[citation needed] In addition, Congressman Duncan Hunter obtained surplus military landing mats to use as a border fence.[citation needed] Stadium lighting, ground sensors and infra-red cameras were also placed in the area.[citation needed] Apprehensions decreased dramatically in that area as people crossed in different regions. [edit] Tucson Sector's Operation Safeguard California was no longer the hotbed of illegal entry and the traffic shifted to Arizona, primarily in Nogales and Douglas.[citation needed] The Border Patrol instituted the same deterrent strategy it used in San Diego to Arizona. [edit] Northern border In 2001, the Border Patrol had approximately 340 agents assigned along the Canada – United States border border. Northern border staffing had been increased to 1,128 agents to 1,470 agents by the end of fiscal year 2008, and is projected to expand to 1,845 by the end of fiscal year 2009, a sixfold increase. Resources that support Border Patrol agents include the use of new technology and a more focused application of air and marine assets. The northern border sectors are Blaine (Washington), Buffalo (New York), Detroit (Selfridge ANGB, Michigan), Grand Forks (North Dakota), Havre (Montana), Houlton (Maine), Spokane (Washington), and Swanton (Vermont). [edit] Border Patrol moves away from interior enforcement In the 1990s, Congress mandated that the Border Patrol shift agents away from the interior and focus them on the borders. After the September 11, 2001 attacks, the Department of Homeland Security created two immigration enforcement agencies out of the defunct Immigration and Naturalization Service: U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) and the U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP). ICE was tasked with investigations, detention and removal of illegal immigrants, and interior enforcement. CBP was tasked with inspections at U.S. ports of entry and with preventing illegal entries between the port of entry, transportation check, and entries on U.S. coastal borders. DHS management decided to align the Border Patrol with CBP. CBP itself is solely responsible for the nation's ports of entry, while Border Patrol maintains jurisdiction over all locations between ports of entry, giving Border Patrol agents federal authority absolutely[dubious – discuss] nationwide[dubious – discuss]. In July 2004, the Livermore Sector of the United States Border Patrol was closed. Livermore Sector served Northern California and included stations at Dublin (Parks Reserve Forces Training Area), Sacramento, Stockton, Fresno and Bakersfield. The Border Patrol also closed other stations in the interior of the United States including Roseburg, Oregon and Little Rock, Arkansas. The Border Patrol functions in these areas consisted largely of local jail and transportation terminal checks for illegal immigrants. These functions were turned over to U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement. [edit] The new strategy Cameras add "Smart Border" surveillance.In November 2005, the U.S. Border Patrol published an updated national strategy.[6] The goal of this updated strategy is operational control of the United States border. The strategy has five main objectives: Apprehend terrorists and terrorist weapons illegally entering the United States; Deter illegal entries through improved enforcement; Detect, apprehend, and deter smugglers of humans, drugs, and other contraband; Use "smart border" technology; and Reduce crime in border communities, improving quality of life. [edit] Capabilities The border is a barely discernible line in uninhabited deserts, canyons, or mountains. The Border Patrol utilizes a variety of equipment and methods, such as electronic sensors placed at strategic locations along the border, to detect people or vehicles entering the country illegally. Video monitors and night vision scopes are also used to detect illegal entries. Agents patrol the border in vehicles, boats, aircraft, and afoot. In some areas, the Border Patrol employs horses, all-terrain motorcycles, bicycles, and snowmobiles. Air surveillance capabilities are provided by unmanned aerial vehicles.[3] The primary activity of a Border Patrol Agent is "Line Watch". Line Watch involves the detection, prevention, and apprehension of terrorists, undocumented aliens and smugglers of aliens at or near the land border by maintaining surveillance from a covert position; following up on leads; responding to electronic sensor television systems and aircraft sightings; and interpreting and following tracks, marks, and other physical evidence. Major activities include traffic check, traffic observation, city patrol, transportation check, administrative, intelligence, and anti-smuggling activities.[4] Traffic checks are conducted on major highways leading away from the border to detect and apprehend illegal aliens attempting to travel further into the interior of the United States after evading detection at the border, and to detect illegal narcotics.[3] Transportation checks are inspections of interior-bound conveyances, which include buses, commercial aircraft, passenger and freight trains, and marine craft.[3] Marine Patrols are conducted along the coastal waterways of the United States, primarily along the Pacific coast, the Caribbean, the tip of Florida, and Puerto Rico and interior waterways common to the United States and Canada. Border Patrol conducts border control activities from 130 marine craft of various sizes. The Border Patrol maintains watercraft ranging from blue-water craft to inflatable-hull craft, in 16 sectors, in addition to headquarters special operations components.[3] Horse and bike patrols are used to augment regular vehicle and foot patrols. Horse units patrol remote areas along the international boundary that are inaccessible to standard all-terrain vehicles. Bike patrol aids city patrol and is used over rough terrain to support linewatch.[3] Snowmobiles are used to patrol remote areas along the northern border in the winter. [edit] Expansion Attrition in the Border Patrol was normally at 5%. From 1995-2001 attrition spiked to above 10%, which was a period when the Border Patrol was undergoing massive hiring. In 2002 the attrition rate climbed to 18%. The 18% attrition was largely attributed to agents transferring to the Federal Air Marshals after 9/11. Since that time the attrition problem has decreased significantly and Congress has increased journeyman Border Patrol Agent pay from GS-9 to GS-11 in 2002. The Border Patrol Marine Position was created in 2009 (BPA-M). This position will be updated to a GS-12 position sometime in 2010 or 2011. Border Patrol Field Training Officers may possibly be updated in 2010 to a temporary GS-12 pay rate. In 2005, Border Patrol attrition dropped to 4% and remains in the area of 4% to 6% as of 2009.[7] The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (signed by President Bush on December 17, 2004) authorized hiring an additional 10,000 agents, "subject to appropriation". This authorization, if fully implemented, would nearly double the Border Patrol manpower from 11,000 to 21,000 agents by 2010. In July 2005, Congress signed the Emergency Supplemental Spending Act for military operations in Iraq/Afghanistan and other operations. The act also appropriated funding to increase Border Patrol manpower by 500 Agents. In October 2005, President Bush also signed the DHS FY06 Appropriation bill, funding an additional 1,000 Agents. In November 2005, President George W. Bush made a trip to southern Arizona to discuss more options that would decrease illegal crossings at the U.S. and Mexican border. In his proposed fiscal year 2007 budget he has requested an additional 1,500 Border Patrol agents. The Secure Fence Act, signed by President George W. Bush on October 26, 2006, has met with much opposition. In October 2007, environmental groups and concerned citizens filed a restraining order hoping to halt the construction of the fence, set to be built between the United States and Mexico. The act mandates that the fence be built by December 2008. Ultimately, the United States seeks to put fencing around the 1,945-mile (3,130 km) border, but the act requires only 700 miles (1,100 km) of fencing. DHS secretary Michael Chertoff has bypassed environmental and other oppositions with a waiver that was granted to him by Congress in Section 102 of the act, which allows DHS to avoid any conflicts that would prevent a speedy assembly of the fence.[8][9] This action has led many environment groups and landowners to speak out against the impending construction of the fence.[10] Environment and wildlife groups fear that the plans to clear brush, construct fences, install bright lights, motion sensors, and cameras will scare wildlife and endanger the indigenous species of the area.[11] Environmentalists claim that the ecosystem could be affected due to the fact that a border fence would restrict movement of all animal species, which in turn would keep them from water and food sources on one side or another. Desert plants would also feel the impact, as they would be uprooted in many areas where the fence is set to occupy.[12] Property owners in these areas fear a loss of land. Landowners would have to give some of their land over to the government for the fence. Citizens also fear that communities will be split. Many students travel over the border every day to attend classes at the University of Texas at Brownsville. Brownsville mayor Pat Ahumada favors alternative options to a border fence. He suggests that the Rio Grande River be widened and deepened to provide for a natural barrier to hinder illegal immigrants and drug smugglers.[13] The United States Border Patrol Academy is located in Artesia, New Mexico. [edit] Special Operations Group A Border Patrol Special Response Team searches room-by-room a hotel in New Orleans in response to Hurricane Katrina. CBP BORSTAR canine team conducting rappeling trainingIn 2007, the Border Patrol created the Special Operations Group (SOG) headquartered in El Paso, TX to coordinate the specialized units of the agency.[14] Border Patrol Tactical Unit (BORTAC) National Special Response Team (NSRT) Border Patrol, Search, Trauma and Rescue (BORSTAR) Air Mobile Unit (AMU) [edit] Other specialized programs The Border Patrol has a number of other specialized programs and details. Air and Marine Operations K9 Units Mounted Patrol Bike patrol Sign-cutting (tracking) Snowmobile unit Infrared scope unit Intelligence Anti-smuggling investigations Border Criminal Alien Program Multi-agency Anti-Gang Task Forces (regional & local units) Honor Guard Pipes and Drums Chaplain Peer Support [edit] Border Patrol organization David V. Aguilar, Acting Commissioner of Customs and Border ProtectionThe current Acting Chief of the Border Patrol is Michael J. Fisher who succeeded in 2010 David V. Aguilar, who is now the Acting Commissioner of Customs and Border Protection. [edit] Border Patrol Sectors There are 20 Border Patrol sectors, each headed by a Sector Chief Patrol Agent. Northern Border (West to East): Blaine Sector (Western Washington State, Idaho, and Western Montana.) - stations; Bellingham, Blaine, Port Angeles, Sumas. Spokane Sector (Eastern Washington State) Havre Sector (Montana) Grand Forks Sector (North Dakota) Detroit Sector (Selfridge Air National Guard Base, Michigan) - stations; Downtown Detroit, Marysville, Gibralter, Sault Sainte Marie, Sandusky Bay. Buffalo Sector (New York) - stations; Buffalo, Erie, Niagura Falls, Oswego, Rochester, Wellesley Island. Swanton Sector (Vermont) Houlton Sector (Maine) Southern Border (West to East): San Diego Sector (San Diego, California) El Centro Sector (Imperial County, California) Yuma Sector (Western Arizona)- stations; Wellton, Yuma, Blythe Tucson Sector (Eastern Arizona) El Paso Sector (El Paso, Texas and New Mexico) - stations; Alamogordo, Albuquerque, Deming, El Paso, Fabens, Fort Hancock, Las Cruces, Lordsburg, Santa Teresa, Truth or Consequences, Ysleta Marfa Sector (Big Bend Area of West Texas) - stations; Alpine, Amarillo, Big Bend, Fort Stockton, Lubbock, Marfa, Midland, Pecos, Presidio, Sanderson, Sierra Blanca, Van Horn Del Rio Sector (Del Rio, Texas) - stations; Abilene, Brackettville, Carrizo Springs, Comstock, Del Rio, Eagle Pass North, Eagle Pass South, Rocksprings, San Angelo, Uvalde Rio Grande Valley Sector (South Texas) - stations; Brownsville, Corpus Christi, Falfurrias, Fort Brown, Harlingen, Kingsville, McAllen, Rio Grande City, Weslaco Laredo Sector (South Texas) - stations; Cotulla, Dallas, Freer, Hebbronville, Laredo North, Laredo South, Laredo West, San Antonio, Zapata New Orleans Sector (Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and West Florida) Miami Sector (Florida East and South) Caribbean Ramey Sector (Aguadilla, Puerto Rico) and the Virgin Islands, it is the only Border Patrol Sector located outside the continental United States [edit] Training All Border Patrol Agents spend 15 weeks in training at the Border Patrol Academy (if they are fluent in Spanish) in Artesia, New Mexico, which is a component of the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center (FLETC).Those who are not fluent in Spanish spend an additional eight weeks at the Academy. Recruits are instructed in Border Patrol and federal law enforcement subjects. Border Patrol courses include: Immigration and Nationality Law, Criminal Law and Statutory Authority, Spanish, Border Patrol Operations, Care and Use of Firearms, Physical Training, Driver Training, and Anti-Terrorism. FLETC courses include: Communications, Ethics and Conduct, Report Writing, Introduction to Computers, Fingerprinting, and Constitutional Law.[15] The physical aspects of the Border Patrol Training Program are extremely demanding. At the end of 55 days, trainees must be able to complete a one and a half mile run in 13 minutes or less, a confidence course in two and a half minutes or less, and a 220 yard dash in 46 seconds or less. This final test is much easier than the day to day physical training during the program.[15] [edit] Uniforms The Border Patrol currently wears the following types of uniforms: CBP officers at a ceremony in 2007Dress uniform – The dress uniform consists of olive-green trousers with a blue stripe, and an olive-green shirt, which may or may not have blue shoulder straps. The campaign hat is worn with uniform. Ceremonial uniform – When required, the following items are added to the dress uniform to complete the ceremonial uniform: olive-green Ike jacket or tunic with blue accents (shoulder straps and cuffs, blue tie, brass tie tack, white gloves, and olive-green felt campaign hat with leather hat band. The campaign hat is worn with uniform. Rough duty uniform – The rough duty uniform consists of green cargo trousers and work shirt (in short or long sleeves). Usually worn with green baseball cap or tan stetson. Accessories, footwear, and outerwear – Additional items are worn in matching blue or black colors as appropriate. Organization patches – The Border Patrol wears two: The CBP patch is worn on the right sleeves of the uniform. It contains the DHS seal against a black background with a "keystone" shape. A "keystone" is the central, wedge-shaped stone in an arch, which holds all the other stones in place. Border Patrol agents retain the circular legacy Border Patrol patch, which is worn on the left sleeve. The Border Patrol uniform is getting its first makeover since the 1950s to appear more like military fatigues and less like a police officer's duty garb.[16] Leather belts with brass buckles are being replaced by nylon belts with quick-release plastic buckles, slacks are being replaced by lightweight cargo pants, and shiny badges and nameplates are being replaced by cloth patches. [edit] Border Patrol (OBP) Ranks and Insignia Location Title Collar insignia Shoulder ornament Pay grade Border Patrol Headquarters Chief of the Border Patrol Gold-plated Senior Executive Service (SES) Deputy Chief of the Border Patrol Gold-plated SES Division Chief Gold-plated SES Deputy Division Chief Gold-plated GS-15, General Schedule Associate Chief Gold-plated GS-15 Assistant Chief Silver-plated GS-14 Operations Officer Oxidized GS-13 Border Patrol Sectors Chief Patrol Agent (CPA) Gold-plated SES or GS-15 Deputy Chief Patrol Agent (DCPA) Gold-plated SES/GS-15 or GS-14 Division Chief Gold-plated GS-15 Assistant Chief Patrol Agent (ACPA) Silver-plated GS-15 or GS-14 Patrol Agent in Charge (PAIC) Silver-plated GS-14 or GS-13 Assistant Patrol Agent in Charge (APAIC) Oxidized GS-13 Special Operations Supervisor (SOS) Oxidized GS-13 Field Operations Supervisor (FOS) Oxidized GS-13 Supervisory Border Patrol Agent (SBPA) Oxidized GS-12 Senior Patrol Agent (SPA) (Note: Being phased out through attrition) No insignia Currently GS-11 (Will be upgraded to full performance level GS-12 sometime during the 1st quarter of 2011) Border Patrol Agent (BPA) No insignia GS-5, 7, 9, 11 (Upgrade to GS-12 pending) Border Patrol Academy Chief Patrol Agent (CPA) Gold-plated GS-15 Deputy Chief Patrol Agent (DCPA) Gold-plated GS-15 Assistant Chief Patrol Agent (ACPA) Silver-plated GS-14 Training Operations Supervisor (TOS) Oxidized GS-14 Supervisory Border Patrol Agent (Senior Instructor) Oxidized GS-13 Supervisory Border Patrol Agent (Instructor) Oxidized GS-13 [edit] Border Patrol Shoulder Ornaments [edit] Awards Newton-Azrak Award for Heroism Commissioners Distinguished Career Service Award Commissioners Exceptional Service Medal Commissioners Meritorious Service Award Commissioners Special Commendation Award Chiefs Commendation Medal No Image Available No Image Available No Image Available Commissioners Excellence in Group Achievement Award Purple Cross Wound Medal Academy Honor Award Winner Border Patrol Long Service Medal 75th Anniversary of the Border Patrol Commemorative Medal No Image Available No Image Available [edit] Newton-Azrak Award for Heroism The Border Patrol's highest honor is the Newton-Azrak Award for Heroism. This Award is bestowed to Border Patrol Agents for extraordinary actions, service; accomplishments reflecting unusual courage or bravery in the line of duty; or an extraordinarily heroic or humane act committed during times of extreme stress or in an emergency. This award is named for Border Patrol Inspectors Theodore Newton[17] and George Azrak,[18] who were murdered by two drug smugglers in San Diego County in 1967. [edit] Border Patrol Uniform Devices Border Patrol Tactical Unit (BORTAC) Border Patrol Search, Trauma and Rescue Unit (BORSTAR) Special Response Team (NSRT) Honor Guard Border Patrol Pipes and Drums Cap Badge No Image Available K-9 Handler Chaplain Field Training Officer Peer Support [edit] Equipment [edit] Weapons A Border Patrol Agent carrying an M14 rifle.Border Patrol Agents are issued the H&K P2000 double action pistol in .40 S&W. It can contain as many as 13 rounds of ammunition (12 in the magazine and one in the chamber). Like other law enforcement agencies, the Remington 870 is the standard shotgun. Border Patrol Agents also commonly carry the M4 Carbine and the H&K UMP 40 caliber submachine gun. The M14 rifle is used for mostly ceremonial purposes. As a less than lethal option, the Border Patrol also uses the FN303. [edit] Transportation Unlike in many other law enforcement agencies in the United States, the Border Patrol operates several thousand SUVs and pickup trucks, which are known for their capabilities to move around in any sort of terrain. This vehicles may have individual revolving lights (strobes or LEDs) and/or light bars and sirens. An extensive modernization drive has ensured that these vehicles are equipped with wireless sets in communication with a central control room. Border Patrol vehicles may also have equipment such as speed radar, breathalyzers, and emergency first aid kits. Some sectors make use of sedans like the Ford Crown Victoria Police Interceptor or the Dodge Charger as patrol cars or high speed "interceptors" on highways. The Border Patrol also operates ATVs, motorcycles, snowmobiles, and small boats in the riverine environment. In 2005, all Border Patrol and ICE aircraft operations were combined under CBP's Office of Air and Marine. All CBP vessel operation in Customs Waters are conducted by Office of Air and Marine. Color schemes of Border Patrol vehicles are either a long green stripe running the length of the vehicle or a broad green diagonal stripe on the door. Most Border Patrol vehicles are painted predominantly white. The Border Patrol also extensively uses horses for remote area patrols. The U.S. Border Patrol has 205 horses As of 2005[update]. Most are employed along the Mexico–United States border. In Arizona, these animals are fed special processed feed pellets so that their wastes do not spread non-native plants in the national parks and wildlife areas they patrol.[19] [edit] Line of duty deaths Total line of duty deaths (since 1904): 105[20] Aircraft accident: 14 Assault: 2 Automobile accident: 28 Drowned: 4 Fall: 4 Gunfire: 30 Gunfire (Accidental): 3 Heart attack: 6 Heat exhaustion: 1 Motorcycle accident: 2 Stabbed: 2 Struck by train: 3 Struck by vehicle: 3 Vehicle pursuit: 2 Vehicular assault: 3 [edit] Armed incursions On August 7, 2008, Mexican troops crossed the border into Arizona and held a U.S. Border Patrol Agent at gunpoint. Agents stationed at Ajo, Arizona said that the Mexican soldiers crossed the border into an isolated area southwest of Tucson and pointed rifles at the agent, who has not been identified. The Mexicans withdrew after other American agents arrived on the scene.[21] [edit] Ramos and Compean In February 2005, Border Patrol Agents Ignacio Ramos and Jose Compean were involved in an incident while pursuing a van in Fabens, Texas. The driver, later identified as Aldrete Davila, was shot by Agent Ramos during a scuffle. Davila escaped back into Mexico, and the agents discovered that the van contained a million dollars worth of marijuana (about 750 pounds). None of the agents at the scene orally reported the shooting, including two supervisors. The Department of Homeland Security opened up an internal affairs investigation into the incident.[22] See also [23][24][25] [edit] Criticisms [edit] Ineffective In 2006, a documentary called The Illegal Immigration Invasion[26] linked the scale of illegal immigration into the United States chiefly to the ineffectiveness of the Border Patrol. The film claimed that this is due to the lack of judicial powers of the Border Patrol and the effective hamstringing of the agency by the federal government. The film interviews people that deal with illegal immigration on a daily basis, as well as local citizens living in the border areas. [edit] Allegations of abuse There are allegations of abuse by the United States Border Patrol such as the ones reported by Jesus A. Trevino, that concludes in an article published in the Houston Journal of International Law (2006) with a request to create an independent review commission to oversee the actions of the Border Patrol, and that creating such review board will make the American public aware of the "serious problem of abuse that exists at the border by making this review process public" and that "illegal immigrants deserve the same constitutionally-mandated humane treatment of citizens and legal residents".[27] In 1998, Amnesty International investigated allegations of ill-treatment and brutality by officers of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, and particularly the Border Patrol. Their report said they found indications of human rights violations during 1996, 1997 and early 1998.[28] An article in Social Justice by Michael Huspek, Leticia Jimenez, Roberto Martinez (1998) cites that in December 1997, John Case, head of the INS Office of Internal Audit, announced at a press conference that public complaints to the INS had risen 29% from 1996, with the "vast majority" of complaints emanating from the southwest border region, but that of the 2,300 cases, the 243 cases of serious allegations of abuse were down in 1997. These serious cases are considered to be distinct from less serious complaints, such as "verbal abuse, discrimination, extended detention without cause."[29] [edit] Corruption Incidences of corruption in the U.S. Border Patrol include: Pablo Sergio Barry, an agent charged with one count of harboring an illegal immigrant, three counts of false statements, and two counts of making a false document.[30] He plead guilty.[31] Christopher E. Bernis, an agent indicted on a charge of harboring an illegal immigrant for nine months while employed as a U.S. Border Patrol agent.[32] Jose De Jesus Ruiz, an agent whose girlfriend was an illegal immigrant, he was put on administrative leave pending an investigation.[32] Oscar Antonio Ortiz, an illegal immigrant[33] who used a fake birth certificate to get into the Border Patrol admitted to smuggling more than 100 illegal immigrants into the U.S., some of them in his government truck,[34] and was helping to smuggle illegal immigrants and charged with conspiring with another agent to smuggle immigrants. An unidentified patrol agent who was recorded on a wire tap stating that he helped to smuggle 30 to 50 immigrants at a time.[33] [edit] National Border Patrol Council National Border Patrol Council (NBPC) is the labor union which represents over 14,000 Border Patrol Agents and support staff. The NBPC was founded in 1968, and its parent organization is the American Federation of Government Employees, AFL-CIO. The NBPC's executive committee is staffed by current and retired Border Patrol Agents and, along with its constituent locals, employs a staff of a dozen attorneys and field representatives. The NBPC is associated with the Peace Officer Research Association of California’s Legal Defense Fund.[35] [edit] National Border Patrol Museum The National Border Patrol Museum is located in El Paso, Texas. The museum exhibits uniforms, equipment, photographs, guns, vehicles, airplanes, boats, and documents which depict the historical and current sector operations throughout the United States. [edit] In popular culture [edit] Books Border Patrol by Alvin Edward Moore The Border Patrol by Deborah Wells Salter EWI: Entry Without Inspection (Title 8 U.S.C. § 1325 Improper entry by alien) by Fortuna Testarona Valiente Tracks in the Sand: A Tale of the Border Patrol by Kent E Lundgren, On The Line: Inside the U.S. Border Patrol by Alex Pacheco and Erich Krauss Patrolling Chaos: The U.S. Border Patrol in Deep South Texas by Robert Lee Maril The U.S. Border Patrol: Guarding the Nation (Blazers) by Connie Collwell Miller My Border Patrol Diary: Laredo, Texas by Dale Squint Holding the Line: War Stories of the U.S. Border Patrol by Gerald Schumacher The Border Patrol Ate My Dust by Alicia Alarcon, Ethriam Cash Brammer, and Ethriam Cash Brammer de Gonzales The Border: Exploring the U.S.-Mexican Divide by David J. Danelo Beat The Border: An Insider's Guide To How The U.S. Border Works And How To Beat It by Ned Beaumont West of the Moon: A Border Patrol Agent's Tale by D. B. Prehoda The Journey: U.S. Border Patrol & the Solution to the Illegal Alien Problem by Donald R. Coppock Border patrol: With the U.S. Immigration Service on the Mexican boundary, 1910-54 by Clifford Alan Perkins Border Patrol: How U.S. Agents Protect Our Borders from Illegal Entry by Carroll B. Colby In Mortal Danger: The Battle for America's Border and Security by Tom Tancredo [edit] Film Border Patrolman, a 1936 film in which a Border Patrolman Bob Wallace, played by George O'Brien, resigns in protest after being humiliated by the spoiled granddaughter of a millionaire. Border Patrol, a 1943 film starring William C. Boyd, Andy Clyde, George Reeves, and Robert Mitchum Borderline, a 1950 film noir starring Fred MacMurray about drug smuggling across the U.S./Mexico border Border Patrol, a 1959 syndicated television series, starring Richard Webb as the fictitious deputy chief of the U.S. Border Patrol Borderline, a 1980 movie starring Charles Bronson about a Border Patrol Agent on the U.S./Mexico border The Border, a 1982 film starring Jack Nicholson El Norte, a 1983 film portraying Central American Indian peasants traveling to the United States. Flashpoint, a 1984 film starring Kris Kristofferson Last Man Standing, a 1996 film starring Bruce Willis and Ken Jenkins as Texas Ranger Captain Tom Pickett who is investing the killing of an unnamed Immigration Inspector (played by Larry Holt) across the border in Mexico. Men in Black, a 1997 science fiction comedy action film starring Tommy Lee Jones, Will Smith and Vincent D'Onofrio. The Border Patrol was portrayed as Immigration Inspectors The Gatekeeper, a 2002 film by John Carlos Frey about the struggles of migrants at the Mexican/US border. The Shepherd: Border Patrol, a 2007 film starring Jean-Claude Van Damme Linewatch, a 2008 film starring Cuba Gooding, Jr., as a Border Patrol agent defending his family from a group of Los Angeles gang members involved in the illegal trade of importing narcotics into the United States. [edit] Documentaries Border Patrol: American's Gatekeepers A&E with former United States Attorney General Janet Reno Investigative Reports: Border Patrol: America's Gatekeepers A&E Investigates History the Enforcers : Border Patrol History Channel [edit] See also Border Protection Personnel United States portal Law enforcement/Law enforcement topics portal List of United States federal law enforcement agencies Immigration and Customs Enforcement Border control Ignacio Ramos Illegal immigration H.R. 4437 Minuteman Project MQ-9 Reaper No More Deaths Office of CBP Air United States Mexico barrier United States-Canadian Border la migra [edit] References ^ "Reinstatements to the northern border". CPB.gov. US Customs and Border Protection. 2008-05-19. www.cbp.gov/xp/cgov/border_security/border_patrol/reinsta.... Retrieved 2009-06-01. ^ www.cbp.gov/xp/cgov/border_security/border_patrol/border_... ^ a b c d e f "Boarder Patrol overview". CPB.gov. US Customs and Boarder Protection. 2008-08-22. www.cbp.gov/xp/cgov/border_security/border_patrol/border_.... Retrieved 2009-06-01. ^ a b "Who we are and what we do". CPB.gov. US Customs and Boarder Protection. 2008-09-03. www.cbp.gov/xp/cgov/border_security/border_patrol/who_we_.... Retrieved 2009-06-01. ^ Gaynor, Tim (2008-01-23). "U.S. turns to horses to secure borders". Reuters. www.reuters.com/article/inDepthNews/idUSN2323280820080124.... Retrieved 2008-01-24. ^ www.cbp.gov/linkhandler/cgov/border_security/border_patro...[dead link] ^ Nuñez-Neto, Blas (2006-010-25) (PDF). Border security: The role of the U.S. Border Patrol. Congressional Research Service. p. 35. digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs//data/2006/upl-meta-c.... Retrieved 2009-06-01. ^ Coyle, Marcia (2008-03-03). "Waivers for border fence challenged: Environmental groups take their complaints to Supreme Court". The Recorder. ^ Archibold, Randal C. (2008-04-02). "Government issues waiver for fencing along border". New York Times. www.nytimes.com/2008/04/02/us/02fence.html. Retrieved 2008-04-02. ^ "Conservation groups call for an immediate halt to construction of border fence in San Pedro National Conservation Area". US Newswire. 2007-10-05. ^ Gordon, David George (May 2000). "A 'grande' dispute". National Geographic World: p. 4. ^ Cohn, Jeffrey P. (2007). "The environmental impacts of a border fence". BioScience 57 (1): 96. doi:10.1641/B570116. www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.1641/B570116. Retrieved 2009-06-01. ^ "Expansive border fence stirs fights over land". Tell Me More. NPR. 2008-03-03. ^ 2007 State of the Border Patrol video[dead link] ^ a b "FAQs: Working for the Border Patrol-basic training". CPB.gov. US Customs and Boarder Protection. 2008-05-29. www.cbp.gov/xp/cgov/careers/customs_careers/border_career.... Retrieved 2009-06-01. ^ Spagat, Elliot (2007-08-16). "Border Patrol uniform gets first makeover since the 1950s". North County Times. www.nctimes.com/articles/2007/08/17/news/sandiego/18_64_3.... Retrieved 2009-06-01. ^ "Border Patrol Inspector Theodore L. Newton Jr.". The Officer Down Memorial Page. www.odmp.org/officer.php?oid=9933. Retrieved 2009-06-01. ^ "Border Patrol Inspector George F. Azrak". The Officer Down Memorial Page. www.odmp.org/officer.php?oid=1368. Retrieved 2009-06-01. ^ Rostien, Arthur H. (2005-06-09). "Border Patrol horses get special feed that helps protect desert ecosystem". Environmental News Network. www.enn.com/top_stories/article/1731. Retrieved 2009-06-01. ^ "United States Department of Homeland Security - Customs and Border Protection - Border Patrol". The Officer Down Memorial Page. www.odmp.org/agency/4830-united-states-department-of-home.... Retrieved 2009-06-01. ^ Meyers, Jim (2008-08-06). "Mexican troops cross border, hold border agent". Newsmax.com. newsmax.com/insidecover/mexican_troops_border/2008/08/06/.... Retrieved 2009-06-01. ^ "Glenn Beck: Ramos & Compean - the whole story". The Glenn Beck Program. Premiere Radio Networks. 2008-07-29. www.glennbeck.com/content/articles/article/196/13098/. Retrieved 2009-06-01. ^ "Error: no |title= specified when using {{Cite web}}". Ramos-Compean. ramos-compean.blogspot.com/. Retrieved 2009-06-01. ^ "2 Border Patrol agents face 20 years in prison". WorldDailyNet. 2006-08-07. www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=51417. Retrieved 2009-06-01. ^ "Ramos and Campean - court appeal". www.scribd.com/doc/219384/Ramos-and-Campean-Court-Appeal. Retrieved 2009-06-01. ^ (Google video) The illegal immigration invasion. October Sun Films. 2006-04-06. video.google.com/videoplay?docid=1451035544403625746. Retrieved 2009-06-01. ^ Jesus A. Trevino (1998). "Border violence against illegal immigrants and the need to change the border patrol's current complaint review process" (PDF). Houston Journal of International Law 21 (1): 85–114. ISSN 0194-1879. www.hjil.org/ArticleFiles/21_1_10.pdf. Retrieved 2009-06-01. ^ United States of America: Human rights concerns in the border region with Mexico. Amnesty International. 1998-05-19. web.amnesty.org/library/Index/engAMR510031998. Retrieved 2009-06-01. ^ Huspek, Michael; Roberto Martinez, and Leticia Jimenez (1998). "Violations of human and civil rights on the U.S.-Mexico border, 1995 to 1997: a report" (Reprint). Social Justice 25 (2). ISSN 1043-1578. findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3427/is_n2_v25/ai_n28711.... Retrieved 2009-06-01. The data compiled in this report suggest that law enforcement in the southwest region of the United States may be verging on lawlessness. This statement receives fuller support from announcements emanating from the INS. In December 1997, John Chase, head of the INS Office of Internal Audit, announced at a press conference that public complaints to the INS had risen 29% from 1996, with the "vast majority" of complaints emanating from the southwest border region. Over 2,300 complaints were filed in 1997 as opposed to the 1,813 complaints filed in 1996. Another 400 reports of "minor misconduct" were placed in a new category. Chase was quick to emphasize, however, that the 243 "serious" allegations of abuse and use of excessive force that could warrant criminal prosecution were down in 1997, as compared with the 328 in 1996. These "serious" cases are considered to be distinct from less serious complaints, such as "verbal abuse, discrimination, extended detention without cause. ^ June 23, 2005 "Border agent accused of hiding an illegal entrant". Arizona Daily Star. 2005-06-23. www.azstarnet.com/sn/border/81082.php June 23, 2005. Retrieved 2009-06-01. ^ "Border agent pleads guilty to harboring illegal entrant". Arizona Daily Star. 2005-09-22. www.azstarnet.com/sn/border/94491.php. Retrieved 2009-06-01. ^ a b "U.S. border agent indicted". Arizona Daily Star. 2005-03-11. www.azstarnet.com/sn/border/65117.php. Retrieved 2009-06-01. ^ a b "Boarder agent said to also be smuggler". SignOnSanDiego.com. Union-Tribune Publishing. 2005-08-05. www.signonsandiego.com/news/mexico/tijuana/20050805-9999-.... Retrieved 2009-06-01. ^ Spagat, Elliot (2006-07-28). "Border agent gets 5 years for smuggling". The Washington Post. www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/07/28/.... Retrieved 2009-06-01. ^ "About NBPC". National Border Patrol Council. 2008-08-14. www.nbpc.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&a.... Retrieved 2009-06-01. [edit] External links Official US Border Patrol website US Border Patrol history National Border Patrol Strategy(PDF) Border Patrol official recruiting page Border Patrol Supervisor's Association (BPSA) Border Patrol agents killed in the line of duty Large Border Patrol site Border Patrol Museum official site National Border Patrol Council official site National Association of Former Border Patrol Officers Friends of the Border Patrol Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding the U.S. Border Patrol Civilian Border Patrol Organizations: An Overview and History of the Phenomenon by the Congressional Research Service. Border Patrol hiring forums and information for potential agents National Border Patrol Museum Pictures of Border Patrol vehicles Crossing Guards in Training LA Times report on Border Patrol training. The Coalition Against Illegal Immigration Border Patrol unofficial Auxiliary NOT a Government Agency and not affiliated with the federal Department of Homeland Security (DHS) [edit] External Video Border Stories [edit] GAO and OIG Reports GAO Report: Border Patrol - Southwest Border Enforcement Affected by Mission Expansion and Budget August 1992 GAO Report: Border Control - Revised Strategy is Showing Some Positive Results December 1994 g96065.pdf GAO Report: Border Patrol - Staffing and Enforcement Activities March 1996 GAO Report: ILLEGAL IMMIGRATION - Southwest Border Strategy Results Inconclusive; More Evaluation Needed December 1997 USDOJ OIG Report: Operation Gatekeeper July 1998 GAO Report: ILLEGAL IMMIGRATION - Status of Southwest Border Strategy Implementation 1999 GAO Report: Border Patrol Hiring December 1999 GAO Report: Southwest Border Strategy - Resource and Impact Issues Remain After Seven Years August 2001 National Border Patrol Strategy March 2005 GAO Report: Effectiveness of Border Patrol Checkpoints July 2005 DHS OIG Report: An Assessment of the Proposal to Merge Customs and Border Protection with Immigration and Customs Enforcement November 2005 [hide]v • d • eBorder guards Asia Bangladesh · China · Israel · Hong Kong · India (Border Security Force · Indo-Tibetan Border Police · Rashtriya Rifles · Indian Home Guard · Special Frontier Force · Assam Rifles) · Pakistan (Frontier Corps · Rangers) · Singapore · Taiwan · Thailand Europe Estonia · European Union · Finland · France · Germany · Italy · Latvia · Lithuania · Norway · Poland · Romania · Russian Federation · Switzerland · Ukraine · United Kingdom North America Canada · United States of America Oceania Australia (Department of Immigration and Citizenship · Australian Customs and Border Protection Service) · New Zealand (Immigration New Zealand · New Zealand Customs Service) Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Border_Patrol" Categories: Federal law enforcement agencies of the United States | Border guards | Specialist law enforcement agencies of the United States | History of immigration to the United States | United States Department of Homeland Security | Borders of the United States Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links | Articles with dead external links from June 2009 | Articles with broken citations | Articles needing cleanup from December 2009 | All pages needing cleanup | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from February 2007 | All accuracy disputes | Articles with disputed statements from December 2009 | Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2005 | All articles containing potentially dated statements

(c) Copyright Alex Drennan The Pinzgauer is a family of high-mobility all-terrain 4WD (4×4) and 6WD (6×6) military utility vehicles. They were most recently manufactured at Guildford in Surrey, England by BAE Systems Land & Armaments. The vehicle was originally developed in the late 1960s and manufactured by Steyr-Daimler-Puch[2][3] of Graz, Austria, and was named after the Pinzgauer, an Austrian breed of horse. It was popular amongst military buyers,[3] and continued in production throughout the rest of the century. In 2000 the rights were sold to Automotive Technik Ltd (ATL) in the UK.[2] ATL was subsequently acquired by Stewart & Stevenson Services, Inc. in 2005; in May 2006, Stewart & Stevenson became a subsidiary of the aerospace and defence group Armor Holdings, Inc.. One year later, Armor Holdings was acquired by BAE Systems plc, who discontinued UK production of the Pinzgauer, which was proving to be vulnerable to mines and improvised explosive devices in Afghanistan. Development work (done in the UK) on a planned Pinzgauer II was evaluated by a BAE subsidiary in Benoni, Gauteng, South Africa but no vehicle was ever made. The original prototype was developed around 1969 and production began in 1971,[2] as successor of the Steyr-Daimler-Puch Haflinger 700 AP 4×4 light military multi purpose offroad vehicle.[2] The Pinzgauer first generation model (710, 712) was produced until 2000 by Steyr-Daimler-Puch in the city of Graz, Austria. It was, and is in use in many armies around the world like Austria,[3] Switzerland,[3] United Kingdom,[3] Saudi Arabia, Thailand, Albania, and Bolivia. When Austrian millionaire Mr. Stronach took over the shareholder majority of Steyr-Daimler-Puch offroad vehicles; he gave the right to build the Steyr Pinzgauer to Automotive Technik Ltd (now BAE). As of 2009, in the Graz plant, the Mercedes-Benz G Wagon / Puch G offroad vehicles were being built. The Pinzgauer is one of the most capable all-terrain vehicles ever made.[citation needed] While not as fast (110 kilometres per hour (68 mph)) as an American Humvee, it can carry more troops. Even the smaller 710M can carry 10 people or two NATO pallets. Both the 4×4 and 6×6 models can tow 5,000 kilograms (11,023 lb) on road; and 1,500 kilograms (3,307 lb) or 1,800 kilograms (3,968 lb), respectively, off-road. It has a range of over 400 kilometres (249 mi) on one tank of fuel, or nearly 700 kilometres (435 mi) with the optional 125 litre tank. The first generation Pinzgauer is available in both four-wheel drive (4×4) (model 710) and six-wheel drive (6×6) (model 712) versions. The Pinzgauer was designed to be reliable and easy to fix; it is shipped with an air-cooled petrol engine with dual-Zenith 36 mm NDIX carburetors. The engine in the Pinzgauer was specifically designed for the vehicle; it has more than one oil pump so that the engine will not get starved of oil no matter how the vehicle is oriented. The Pinzgauer has a chassis design which contributes to its high mobility. It has a central tube chassis[2] with a transaxle which distributes the weight more evenly, and keeps the centre of gravity as low as possible. The differentials are all sealed units and require minimal additional lubrication. The Pinzgauer also has portal axles like the Unimog to provide extra clearance over obstacles. The 710 4×4 was the more popular variant, but the Pinzgauer was designed to have a very capable 6×6 configuration from the start. The rear suspension on the back of the 6×6 712 is designed to provide maximum traction in the most demanding circumstances along with increasing its towing, load carrying, and off-road abilities. During production from 1971 until 1985, 18,349 first-generation 710s and 712s were produced and sold to both civilian and military customers. Variants[edit] 710 4×4[edit] Pinzgauer 710M 4×4 model Msoft top with rear passenger seats (10 passenger total) Tflat bed carrier K5 door hard top station wagon AMB-Yambulance with 3 doors AMB-Sambulance with air-portable removable shelter 712 6×6[edit] Pinzgauer 712M 6×6 model Msoft top with rear passenger seats Tflat top carrier FWfire truck K5-door station wagon Wworkshop with air-portable shelter DK4-door crew cab pickup AMB-Sambulance, with air-portable removable shelter The most common body types are either "K" (hard-topped) or "M" (soft-topped) types. Specifications[edit] All the first generation Pinzgauers are equipped with: 2.5 litre inline four-cylinder air-cooled engine. An exception was made on certain 712 variants towards the end of production that came with a 2.7-litre air-cooled four-cylinder engine. This was primarily on ambulances. DIN rated motive power: 65 kilowatts (88 PS; 87 bhp) (105 hp SAE) Torque: 180 newton metres (133 lbf·ft) Five-speed manual transmission with two-speed transfer case four-wheel-drive or six-wheel-drive with on-the-fly hydraulic differential locks Fully independent suspension Backbone chassis tube[2] Integrated differentials 24 volt electrical system Vacuum assisted drum brakes Portal axles to give extra clearance Imports into the USA[edit] The interior of a Pinzgauer A popular idea in North America and other countries is to import first generation Pinzgauers for individual use. Any Pinzgauer can be imported but, due to the high cost and the difficulty in certifying them in the USA, the second generation Pinzgauers are very rarely imported there. First generation Pinzgauers are often imported because they are widely available and cheaper. Both Switzerland and Austria have released many 1st generation Pinzgauers into the civilian marketplace; as they converted their fleet to newer trucks. First generation Pinzgauers sold to civilians in Europe are likewise occasionally found and imported to the US. Vehicles over 25 years old are much easier to import to the USA due to a rolling 25 year exemption to United States Department of Transportation (DOT) regulations, and a rolling 21 year exemption for United States Environmental Protection Agency requirements. The first generation Pinzgauers were equipped with typical safety equipment for that era: seat belts, emergency flashers, etc., and have no difficulty meeting US standards for vehicles of that age. In many aspects, the Pinzgauer was better equipped from a safety perspective than many contemporary 4×4s (Jeeps, Land Rovers, etc.) coming from the factory with seat belts, power brakes, integral roll bars, and other safety focused design features. Like most off-road vehicles, the driver has to be aware of the high centre of gravity. As with other 4×4s, it is possible to tip them if driven aggressively or inappropriately. The first generation trucks are popular with off-roaders worldwide due to their low cost and their ability in off-roading. There are dealers in various countries that import and sell Pinzgauers from both individual sales and government auctions. Slowly 2nd generation Pinzgauers, the 716 and 718 models, are appearing on the retail market in various states and conditions. The government of Malaysia has retired its Pinzgauer fleet of P90 and P93, which vary in date of manufacture from 1996 to as late as 1998. UK army surplus vehicles tend to be in poor condition, most having served in Afghanistan or Iraq. Good vehicles are quickly bought by collectors and a small number may be turned into self-contained expedition vehicles, the Pinzgauer being one of the very few vehicles of its size that can successfully be made 'self-contained' due to its forward control cab and large load area.[original research?] Second generation[edit] In 1980, Steyr-Daimler-Puch started development on a second generation Pinzgauer. After six years of research and development, the initial second generation Pinzgauer II rolled off the assembly line in 1986. In 2000, Magna, who bought Steyr-Daimler-Puch, sold its rights to the Pinzgauer to Automotive Technik in the UK who took over production of the Pinzgauer.[3] The Pinzgauer is now owned and produced by BAE Systems Land Systems in Guildford, Surrey,[1][4] however production has ceased. The four-wheel drive (4×4) model is now called a 716,[3] and the six-wheel drive (6×6) model[4] is now called a 718.[3] The same letter body type designations apply. The new 716 has the same payload rating as the old 712, and the new 718 also has a similarly higher payload capacity. There were a few minor changes to the design of the Pinzgauer II: Inline six-cylinder Volkswagen Group Turbocharged Direct Injection diesel engine ZF Friedrichshafen four-speed automatic transmission, or five-speed manual transmission[2] Slightly wider track Slightly bigger tyres Disc brakes Standard automatic transmission, with optional manual transmission The second generation motor vehicle went through several minor revisions through its life, unlike the first generation which used the same design throughout production. The first second-generation Pinzgauers were designated P80 (1980). It went through a revision in 1990 (P90), 1993 (P93), and an internal combustion engine change in 2002. This was a new Volkswagen Group Turbocharged Direct Injection (TDI) engine[2] to meet the new Euro3 emissions requirements.[2] Worldwide markets[edit] British Army Pinzgauer Vector Pinzgauer cockpit The Pinzgauer is increasingly replacing the Land Rover Defender in the military utility vehicle role;[2] despite its high cost of upwards of US$100,000 per unit. Pinzgauer (or Pinz as it is known to most British soldiers) is more common as a utility vehicle in Royal Artillery units due to its employment as a light gun tractor. A new armoured version called the "Vector" entered service in the British Army in early 2007, as part of an effort to provide safer patrol vehicles for troops in Afghanistan. The 6×6 Vector PPV (Protected Patrol Vehicle), will according to the manufacturer, "Build on the existing proven design, with enhancements that will include a combination of physical protection, as well as the use of sophisticated electronic counter measures to maximise survivability while on patrol". However, the Vector PPV was found to have unreliable suspension and wheel hubs as well as poor protection against improvised explosive devices. It quickly lost the confidence of field commanders and was withdrawn from service.[5] The Pinzgauer is also the basis for the Tactical Ground Station (TGS) element of the Raytheon Systems Limited Airborne Standoff Radar (ASTOR). The TGS comprises two workstation vehicles, a mission support vehicle, and a standard utility vehicle. Many Pinzgauers were sold to military forces (initially Austrian[3] and Swiss[3]) to be used as non-tactical utility vehicles. Typical military roles are as general-purpose utility truck, command vehicles, troop carrier, ambulance, and tow vehicle. Roles very similar to other civilian sourced vehicles like Land Rover in the UK, the Blazer CUCV in the US, and the Mercedes G in many European countries. The New Zealand Army[2] has purchased 321 Pinzgauer vehicles in 8 variants to fulfill the Light Operational Vehicle (LOV) role. The Malaysian Army purchased 168 2 Ton 4×4 716 Gun Tractors and 164 2 Ton 6×6 718 Mortar Transporters to replace older Volvo C303 and C304 in their inventories. It is affectionately called "Piglet" due to its design. The Pinzgauer was also marketed to the civilian marketplace worldwide for use as campers, farm trucks, ambulances,[3] fire-trucks,[3] and rescue vehicles.[3] Likewise, many ended up being used as tourist vans due to their large passenger capacity and stable, reliable platform. Pinzgauers have been used as tourist transports in Africa, Australia, South America, Hawaii, and other exotic locales. Some are still in use today. Pinzgauers were also marketed to- and used extensively by energy companies for oil exploration purposes. A few Pinzgauers were used for off-road racing, including the famous Paris to Dakar Rally and the International Rainforest Challenge in Malaysia. Military users[edit] Pinzgauer of the British Army Military users include: Argentina Austria Bolivia Cyprus New Zealand[2] United Kingdom[2] Saudi Arabia Serbia Lithuania Malaysia Switzerland Pinzgauer capabilities[edit] The Pinzgauer is a highly accomplished off-road vehicle. Its capabilities, in some operational scenarios, are better than that of the Humvee and the Land Rover Defender. 45-degree approach and departure angle 100% slope, or until tyres lose traction 700 millimetres (27.6 in) fording depth Can climb down a 360 millimetres (14.2 in) wall 43.5-degree side-slope 1000/1500 kg of payload (4×4/6×6) 335 millimetres (13.2 in) of clearance (lowest point when fully loaded) top speed (4×4): 110 kilometres per hour (68 mph); (6×6): 100 kilometres per hour (62 mph) Full engine power available at 4 kilometres per hour (2 mph) M body type carries 10 people (4×4), 14 people (6×6)

Trendy concept restaurant and bar by ZEN.. They have fantastic view of Bangkok city, nice interior ambiance. Food catered by a mix of famous restaurants in Bangkok. Thai cuisine by White Café, Italian Food by Gianni, Japanese cuisine by Kikusui, Indian taste by Red Restaurant. Don't forget to bring enough money. @ ZEN World Lobby (at CentralWorld) 17th floor, Zense open daily for lunch at 11.30 a.m. – 2.30 p.m. and for dinner at from sunset till midnight. Interesting find. The world's most expensive cities in 2008 Index (New York = 100) 1 London 120.2 2 Oslo 112.3 3 Dublin 105.2 4 Copenhagen 102.6 5 New York 100.0 6 Zurich 97.7 7 Geneva 96.0 8 Tokyo 94.4 9 Helsinki 92.8 10 Paris 92.8 11 Luxembourg 91.9 12 Stockholm 90.8 13 Vienna 88.3 14 Amsterdam 86.2 15 Munich 84.9 16 Frankfurt 82.4 17 Sydney 82.2 18 Chicago 81.8 19 Brussels 81.7 20 Milan 81.2 21 Los Angeles 80.8 22 Madrid 80.7 23 Rome 80.5 24 Toronto 80.4 25 Montreal 80.0 26 Barcelona 79.9 27 Nicosia 79.2 28 Lyon 78.5 29 Istanbul 76.6 30 Berlin 76.4 31 Seoul 76.0 32 Lisbon 74.6 33 Miami 73.1 34 Dubai 72.8 35 Hong Kong 72.3 36 Auckland 71.8 37 Moscow 71.2 38 Singapore 70.5 39 Athens 70.0 40 Caracas 68.6 41 Rio de Janeiro 66.5 42 Sao Paulo 64.9 43 Tel Aviv 64.6 44 Warsaw 63.5 45 Tallinn 63.0 46 Budapest 62.0 47 Ljubljana 60.2 48 Santiago de Chile 59.7 49 Taipei 56.4 50 Prague 55.9 51 Riga 54.8 52 Manama 54.8 53 Bucharest 53.7 54 Bratislava 53.5 55 Sofia 52.8 56 Mumbai 49.6 57 Bogota 49.4 58 Mexico City 49.1 59 Vilnius 48.3 60 Kiev 48.0 61 Bangkok 47.2 62 Nairobi 46.3 63 Jakarta 45.9 64 Johannesburg 45.5 65 Beijing 43.4 66 Manila 43.3 67 Shanghai 43.2 68 Delhi 41.4 69 Lima 39.3 70 Buenos Aires 34.4 data from ECA International survey

1990 Following the Iraq invasion of Kuwait on August 2nd Desert Shield Begins as the United States and UK send troops to Kuwait. The US enters a bad recession which will have repercussions over the next few years throughout the world. This is also the year "The Simpsons" is seen for the first time on FOX & SKY TV. Following the Berlin Wall falling East and West Germany reunite. In technology Tim Berners-Lee publishes the first web page on the WWW and it shown that there is a hole in the Ozone Layer above the North Pole, also the First in car GPS Satellite Navigation System goes on sale from Pioneer. Britain 1990 Thatcher quits as prime minister Margaret Thatcher is to stand down as prime minister after her Cabinet refused to back her in a second round of leadership elections. She will remain in office until a successor is elected, but will not continue to fight Michael Heseltine for the Conservative Party leadership. The former secretary of state for the environment threw down the gauntlet after a string of serious disputes over Britain's involvement in the European Union. The prime minister said pressure from colleagues had forced her to conclude that party unity and the prospect of victory in the next general election would be better served if she stepped down. Labour leader Neil Kinnock said the prime minister's decision showed she amounted to more than those who had recently turned against her. But the outgoing Tory leader refused a request from Mr Kinnock to hold a general election so the British people could make their own choice about her successor. Tributes flooded in from admirers and opponents around the world, including Neil Kinnock and President Bush, who called her a staunch ally to the United States and added: "I'll miss her." But the Stock Market rose at the news. Mr Kinnock savaged Conservatives who had abandoned a leader they had supported through "11 oil-rich years with a recession at each end and a miracle in between". Tories choose Major for Number 10 John Major is to be Britain's new prime minister after winning the Conservatives' leadership election. Mr Major, 47, will visit the Queen at 1030 BST tomorrow to be formally appointed and will return to Downing Street as the youngest British leader this century. Currently serving as Chancellor of the Exchequer, Mr Major did not achieve the majority required for an absolute victory, but the margin was clear enough for his rivals to withdraw and a third ballot was avoided. Mr Major - who has been in parliament for only 11 years - said he was enormously encouraged so many had voted for him and would discharge his responsibilities to the best of his ability. Violence flares in poll tax demonstration This was a day of protest against Margaret Thatcher’s poll tax that had turned into the most serious riot central London had seen for a century. As missiles flew and police horses charged. An anti-poll tax rally in central London has erupted into the worst riots seen in the city for a century. Forty-five police officers are among the 113 people injured as well as 20 police horses. A total of 340 people have been arrested in the heart of London's West End, popular with musical and theatre goers, as cars have been overturned and set alight. Four tube stations have been shut for safety reasons as police try to clear the streets, with much of central London now cordoned off. Demonstrators have attacked police with bricks and cans. Fire fighters attempting to extinguish the blazes have been hit with wood and stones. Restaurants have been forced to close early by the violence which left shop windows smashed and many businesses with their contents looted. Eyewitness reports describe a cloud of black smoke over Trafalgar Square. UK temperatures reach record high At the beginning of August 1990 there was a widespread hot spell, during which a new UK temperature record was set. A maximum of 37.1 °C was measured at Cheltenham on the 3rd, beating the record of 36.7 °C set at Raunds (Northamptonshire), Epsom (Surrey) and Canterbury (Kent) on 9 August 1911. Temperatures exceeded 32 °C over large areas of southern, central and eastern England and east Wales from the 1st to 4th, peaking on the 3rd with over 35 °C recorded in several large swathes of England. Across England and Wales, the heat placed strains on every day life. Transport was affected with road closures as surfaces melted, a runway at Heathrow airport suffered similar problems and, as a precaution, speed restrictions were in force for some inter-city trains in case rails buckled. There was also a surge in hospital admissions with heat-related conditions, and an increased mortality rate. The fire services were kept busy tackling heath and farmland fires that broke out in dry conditions that had prevailed since March. On 3 and 4 August there was a spate of drownings as people turned to swimming as a way of keeping cool. The entire stock of a Liverpool chocolate factory melted and at Stansted Mountfichet Castle, Essex a waxwork knight melted into a puddle. Although the sweltering temperatures are being enjoyed by holidaymakers and sun seekers, they are not good news for everyone. Fire crews are battling countryside fires in North Yorkshire and more than 100 square miles (259 square kilometres) of the Peak District National Park will be closed from midnight on Sunday to protect the moorland from careless visitors. Penguins at Bristol zoo and a herd of rare pigs from Ludlow in Shropshire, are receiving daily cold showers of water to prevent them from dehydrating. Many roads around the country are clogged as motorists make their way to coastal resorts and some intercity trains will be running at reduced speeds because of possible distortion of the rails in the intense heat. Reservoir levels are also falling but officials are confident that supplies are not yet at risk. Rioting inmates take over Strangeways Up to 1,000 prisoners are running amok in Strangeways Prison in Manchester in a violent riot in which at least three prisoners are reported to have been killed. The rioting began this morning during a service in the prison chapel, attended by about 300 inmates. It is believed the action may have been planned in advance as a protest against conditions at the jail. Prisoners quickly gained access to the chapel roof and broke into the living accommodation in the main prison. The inmates have taken up positions on the main prison roof, tearing off slates and pelting prison officers, police and emergency services with them. They have set fire to the chapel and gymnasium, and wrecked prison cells. The riot at Strangeways turned into a siege lasting 25 days - the longest in British penal history. Early reports of high casualties proved unfounded. Two men died - one prisoner, and a prison officer. Almost 200 inmates and staff were injured. The prison was damaged so badly it cost £55 million to rebuild. It has since been renamed HMP Manchester. A major inquiry into the riot was set up under a senior judge, Lord Woolf. He said severe overcrowding was to blame, and recommended several practices should end, including "slopping out" and putting prisoners two or three to a cell. Slopping out - the use of chamber pots in cells without sanitation - officially came to an end in 1996, although it still continues in some parts of the prison service. A major prison building programme has now begun in an effort to solve the continuing problem of overcrowding. Meanwhile, the prison population has been steadily rising. In 1990, there were 45,000 prisoners in England and Wales. By 2005 there were more than 73,000. Tony Adams Just before Christmas in 1990, the former Arsenal captain staggered away from a drinks party and drove his car into a telegraph pole at 70mph. He was four times over the limit and served 56 days in prison for his misdemeanour. As he was sent down, he was handcuffed to another prisoner who groaned in dismay. When Adams asked him what was wrong, the man apparently replied: "This is a nightmare. I'm a Tottenham fan." When he just missed the cut for the World Cup squad in May 1990, Tony Adams was hailed as a future England captain by the manager Bobby Robson. He wasn't wrong, but Adams' journey would not be a smooth one: the same month, Adams drove into a wall while drunk, and was jailed for four months in December 1990. He served two before returning to help Arsenal win the league that season and, though his drink problems were still lingering, he conquered them once and for all in 1996. The stories of drinking among George Graham's men in the early part of the decade are legendary - Paul Merson, Tony Adams and Ray Parlour were among those who regularly attended Arsenal's infamous "Tuesday club" - but other excesses are perhaps less well known."We used to have eating contests on the way up to games," Merson confessed in a recent television documentary. "You know, who could finish the most pies on the coach up to Newcastle or somewhere like that." With Arsenal players bloated and most likely hungover before they even warmed-up for matches, it is hardly surprising Manchester United were able to wrestle the initiative from them prior to Arsène Wenger's arrival at the club. Britain and France connected France and the UK were not always separated. Thousands of years ago they were connected by land but a humongous flood carved out a break and changed Britain’s landscape and the course of history forever and Britain became an island. Estimates say that as short a time ago as 6000 BC you could walk to France from Britain at certain times of the year! Just think – if that flood hadn’t happened and we were still joined together – would the French be British or the British French?! It doesn’t bear thinking about does it? The two countries have been good friends at times and not so good at others and getting across to see each other was by boat for thousands of years until people started to think about new, better ways to visit each other and one of those ways was by tunnel. On December 1, 1990, a historic meeting between British and French building workers took place when they met in the middle and toasted the event with champagne. Four years later on May 6, 1994, a year behind schedule and way over budget, Queen Elizabeth II and President Mitterand declared the Channel Tunnel - the longest undersea tunnel in the world – open. France and Britain were once more connected. It may already be too late for Tesco and Sainsbury's, the rise of Aldi and Lidl looks unstoppable The "big four" supermarkets took their eye off Aldi and Lidl, and now British shoppers can't get enough of them. The German discounters Aldi and Lidl arrived in the UK in 1990 and 1994 respectively. But after two decades of highs and lows, they have finally built a proposition that resonates with UK consumers, and they are reshaping how we shop. 5 April – Aldi, a German discount food supermarket chain, opens its first store in Britain, in Stechford, Birmingham. Poundland, a supermarket chain selling all items for £1, opens its first store at Burton-upon-Trent, Staffordshire. Netto, a Danish discount food supermarket chain, opens its first store in Britain in Leeds. But perhaps the clearest evidence that the momentum behind discount retailing is unstoppable was provided by Sainsbury’s. The company is to relaunch Netto as its own discount chain. If you can’t beat them, join them. 1990 Shopping Basket dozen eggs - 90p Cadbury' s Freddo Frog - 10p pint of milk - 25p oven-fresh loaf of bread - £1 oven-ready chicken - £1 pork shoulder - £1.50 pint of beer - 99p 100g jar of instant coffee - 1.75 1990 Timeline January – Vauxhall enters the coupé segment of the car market with the launch of its Cavalier-based Calibra, which is the first coupé built by General Motors in Europe since the demise of the Opel Manta in 1988. 1 January - Glasgow begins its year as European Capital of Culture, the first designated in the British Isles. Television debut of Rowan Atkinson's Mr. Bean in a Thames Television special. 13 January – Some 50,000 people demonstrate on the streets of London to support of Britain's ambulance workers, as the ongoing ambulance crew strike continues four months after it began. 18 January – The first MORI poll of the decade shows that Labour have a 12-point lead over the Conservatives with 48% of the vote. Liberal support is at its lowest for more than a decade as the Liberal Democrats gain just 5% of the vote. 19 January – Police in Johannesburg, South Africa, break up a demonstration against the cricket match played by rebel English cricketers led by Mike Gatting. 25 January – Burns' Day storm: hurricane-force winds are reported to have killed 39 people in England and Wales. 29 January – Lord Justice Taylor publishes his report in the Hillsborough disaster, which claimed the lives of 95 Liverpool F.C. supporters on 15 April last year. He recommends that all top division stadiums are all-seater by 1994 and that the rest of the Football League follows suit by 1999, but rules out the government's proposed ID card scheme to combat football hooliganism as "unworkable". 9 February – Ayatollah Khomeini of Iran renews his fatwa on British author Salman Rushdie, which he imposed last year following controversy over the author's book: The Satanic Verses. 15 February - The UK and Argentina restore diplomatic relations after eight years. Diplomatic ties were broken off in response to Argentina's invasion of the Falkland Islands in 1982. Neil Kinnock's dream of being prime minister appears closer to becoming reality as the latest MORI poll shows Labour on 51% with a 17-point lead over the Conservatives. 20 February – Three people are injured in Leicester city centre by a bomb explosion. 26 February – Fourteen people are killed as storms hit Britain. One of the worst-hit areas is Towyn in North Wales, where approximately 2,000 people are evacuated from their homes after huge waves smash a 200-yard hole in the sea wall and cause a major flood. 27 February – Economists warn that house prices could fall by up to 10% this year. 1 March – The Official Secrets Act 1989 comes into force. 7 March – Halifax Building Society reveals that house prices rose by 0.3% last month – the first monthly rise since July last year. 9 March – 37 people are arrested and 10 police officers injured in Brixton, London, during rioting against the new Community Charge. 13 March – The ambulance crew dispute ends after six months when workers agree to a 17.6% pay rise. 15 March - Iraq hangs British journalist Farzad Bazoft for spying. Daphne Parish, a British nurse, is sentenced to fifteen years in prison for being an accomplice to Mr Bazoft. Britain's unemployment is now down to 1,610,000 – the lowest since 1978. However, it is a drop of just 2,000 on January's total and economists fear that a sharp rise in unemployment could soon begin as there are widespread fears of a recession. 20 March – Chancellor John Major delivers the first budget to be shown on television. 21 March – Allan Roberts, Labour MP for Bootle, dies of cancer aged 46. 23 March – The Duke and Duchess of York's second child, another daughter, is born. 28 March – ITV broadcasts the Granada Television documentary drama, Who Bombed Birmingham?. The programme, which looks at the 1974 Birmingham pub bombings and the conviction of the Birmingham Six names several people believed to have actually been behind the bombings. 31 March – 200,000 protesters in Poll Tax Riots in London in the week preceding official introduction of the Community Charge. 1–25 April – 1990 Strangeways Prison riot in Manchester. 2 April – An earthquake measuring 5.1 on the Richter scale and centred on the Shropshire town of Bishop's Castle is felt throughout much of England and Wales. 4 April – Dr Raymond Crockett is struck off the medical register for using kidneys from Turkish immigrants who had been paid to donate them. 5 April – Aldi, a German discount food supermarket chain, opens its first store in Britain, in Stechford, Birmingham. 9 April – Four Ulster Defence Regiment soldiers are killed by an IRA bomb in County Down. 10 April – With nineteen inmates at Strangeways Prison in Manchester still staging a rooftop protest against prison conditions, rioting has broken out at prisons in Cardiff and Bristol. 11 April – Customs and Excise officers seize parts of an Iraqi supergun in Middlesbrough. 19 April – Labour now have a 23-point lead over the Conservatives in the latest MORI poll. 29 April – Stephen Hendry, 21, becomes the youngest ever world snooker champion. May – Rover Group launches a heavily facelifted version of its Metro, which has been the best-selling car of the combine previously known as British Leyland and more recently Austin Rover since its 1980 launch. 3 May – The end of House price inflation is declared by Halifax Building Society, two years after the housing market peaked. 4 May – The local council elections see Labour win more local council seats than the Conservatives. Neil Kinnock's hopes of victory in the next general election are further boosted by the fact that Labour have finished ahead in most of the last year's opinion polls. 7 May – The Prince and Princess of Wales travel to Budapest for the first postwar British royal visit there. 8 May – Billy Cartman, a 33-year-old grouter, becomes the sixth Briton to die in the construction of the Channel Tunnel when he is crushed by heavy machinery. 11 May – Inflation now stands at 9.4% – the highest level for eight years. 19 May - British agriculture Minister John Gummer feeds a hamburger to his 5-year-old daughter to counter rumours about the spread of Bovine spongiform encephalopathy and its transmission to humans. Unemployment is reported to have risen for the first time in four years, though it is still only just over 1,600,000 compared to the high of more than 3,000,000 that was on record in 1986. Helen Rollason becomes the first female presenter on BBC1's Grandstand. 25 May – The "rump" Social Democratic Party (consisting of members who backed out of the merger with the Liberal Party which formed the Liberal Democrats two years ago) finishes behind the Monster Raving Loony Party in the Bootle by-election, where Labour retain power under new MP Michael Carr. 30 May – France bans British beef and live cattle imports as a precaution against fears of BSE being spread. 1 June – An army recruit is shot dead and two others are wounded by two suspected IRA gunmen in Lichfield, Staffordshire. 3 June – The Social Democratic Party is wound up after nine years in existence. 7 June – France, Italy and West Germany lift bans on British beef imposed during the BSE outbreak. 14 June - The proposed high-speed rail link between London and the Channel Tunnel is shelved. Unemployment rises for the second month running, though by just over 4,000 to a total of 1,611,000 in May. 20 June – Chancellor of the Exchequer John Major proposes the "hard ecu", a currency which would ciruclate into parallel with national currencies as an alternative to full monetary union. 2 July – Girobank Plc privatised by sale to the Alliance & Leicester Group. 11 July – Labour MP's accuse the Conservative government of "fraud" amid allegations that the 1,600,000 fall in unemployment since 1986 included a million people leaving the list without finding work. 14 July – Trade and Industry Secretary Nicholas Ridley resigns following an interview in The Spectator in which he likened the European Union to Hitler's Germany. 16 July - An official report reveals that High Street sales are at their lowest since 1980, sparking further fears of a recession. Nigel Mansell, Britain's most successful racing driver of the last 10 years, announces that he is to retire from Grand Prix races at the end of the 1990 season. 17 July – German food superstore chain Aldi opens its first British store in Birmingham and plans to have up to 200 stores across the country by 1993. 19 July – Saddam Hussein, dictator of Iraq, frees Daphne Parish from prison for "humanitarian reasons" and she returns to Britain. 20 July - An IRA bomb explodes at Stock Exchange Tower, the base of the London Stock Exchange. Michael Car, Labour MP for Bootle, dies after just 57 days in parliament from a heart attack at the age of 43. 24 July – A Roman Catholic nun and three police officers are killed by an IRA landmine in County Armagh. 30 July – IRA car bomb kills British MP Ian Gow, a staunch unionist, after he assured the IRA that the British government would never surrender to them. 31 July – The England cricket team defeats the India national cricket team in a high-scoring Lord's test match totalling 1,603 runs. 1 August – British Airways Flight 149 is seized by the Iraqi Army at Kuwait International Airport following the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. 3 August – Heat wave peaks with a temperature of 37.1°C (98.8°F) recorded at Cheltenham, Gloucestershire. 5 August – Margaret Thatcher announces her desire for a new Magna Carta to guarantee basic rights for all European citizens. 14 August – A survey carried out by the BBC reveals that 20% of taxpayers in England and Wales had not paid their Community Charge by 30 June this year. 16 August – A MORI poll shows that Labour now has a 15-point lead over the Conservatives with 50% of the vote, while support to the Liberal Democrats has doubled to 10% over the last seven months. 22 August – James MacMillan's symphonic piece The Confession of Isobel Gowdie premieres at The Proms in London. 23 August – British hostages in Iraq are paraded on TV. Ford launches the new version of its Escort hatchback, estate and cabriolet, and Orion saloon, two cars with combined sales figures which account more than 10% of new cars sold in Britain. Sales of the two cars begin in Britain and the rest of Europe next month. 24 August – Irish hostage Brian Keenan is released in Beirut, Lebanon, after being held a hostage there for more than four years. 27 August - Four found guilty in the Guinness share-trading fraud trial. The BBC begins broadcasting on Radio 5, its first new station for 23 years. 2 September – The long-running animated series The Simpsons is broadcast in the United Kingdom for the first time, making its début on Sky1. Call of the Simpsons is the first episode to be shown on Sky. 3 September – Rosie and Jim first airs on ITV. 5 September – New BBC building at White City opens. 7 September – After an 8-year absence, The Generation Game returns on BBC1 with Bruce Forsyth as returning host and Rosemarie Ford as hostess. 10 September – Pegasus, a leading British travel operator, goes bankrupt. 18 September – Air Chief Marshal Sir Peter Terry survives a murder attempt by IRA terrorists at his home near Stafford. 22 September – John Banham, a leading British industrial minister, warns that most of Britain is now affected by a recession and that there is worse to come. The latest CBI prediction is also the gloomiest since 1980, the last time Britain was in recession. Fears of a recession have been growing across most of the world since the autumn of last year. However, chancellor John Major denies that Britain is on the verge of a recession. 26 September – Margaret Thatcher joins in with the politicians who are denying that the British economy is slumping into recession, despite manufacturers reporting their biggest drop in output since 1982 and a growing number of bankruptcies. 2 October – Neil Kinnock cites education and training as key areas needing an improvement in standards when he addresses his party's conference in Blackpool. 8 October - Pound Sterling joins the Exchange Rate Mechanism. First members of the Women's Royal Naval Service to serve officially on an operational warship board Type 22 frigate HMS Brilliant. 18 October – Eastbourne by-election in East Sussex. 19 October – David Bellotti for the Liberal Democrats wins the "safe" Eastbourne Conservative seat. 23 October - Treasury officials speak of their belief that a "brief, technical" recession in the British economy is now inevitable. Edward Heath, the former British prime minister, leaves Baghdad on a plane bound for Heathrow Airport with 33 freed hostages. Saddam Hussein has promised to release a further 30 hostages in the near future. David Lynch's critically acclaimed serial drama Twin Peaks receives its British television debut at 9.00pm on BBC2. 27 October – Economists predict that the current economic downturn will be confined to the second half of this year. 29 October - Premier of Keeping up Appearances on TV. November - British Sky Broadcasting founded as a merger between Sky Television and British Satellite Broadcasting. Government produces Planning Policy Guidance 16: Archaeology and Planning to advise local authorities on the treatment of archaeology within the planning process. Site developers are required to contract with archaeological teams to have sites investigated in advance of development. Neil Kinnock, who has been leader of the Labour Party since October 1983, is now the longest serving opposition leader in British political history. 1 November - Geoffrey Howe, Deputy Prime Minister, resigns over the government's European policy. Broadcasting Act makes bidding for independent television franchises more commercially based and relaxes regulation of television and radio broadcasting. Courts and Legal Services Act introduces major reforms of the legal profession and Courts of England and Wales. 2 November – Neil Kinnock announces his support for the adoption of a single European currency. 8 November – The second Bootle by-election of the year sees Labour hold onto the seat once more with new MP Joe Benton gaining nearly 80% of the votes. 12 November – The Football Association penalises Arsenal two points and Manchester United one point and fines both clubs £50,000 for a mass player brawl in a Football League match between the two clubs last month at Old Trafford. 13 November – Geoffrey Howe makes a dramatic resignation speech in the House of Commons, attacking the Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher's hostility towards the EC. 14 November – The CBI confirms that the whole of Britain is now in recession, with every region now reporting a fall in output. Former cabinet minister Michael Heseltine announces that he will challenge Margaret Thatcher's leadership. 15 November – Despite constant disputes in the government and widespread doubt over Mrs Thatcher's position as prime minister and party leader, as well as the economy sliding into recession, the Conservatives have cut Labour's lead in the opinion polls to four points as they gain 41% of the vote in the latest MORI poll. 19 November – Major job cuts are reported to be on the way at the Rover Group as the recession affects demand for the company's Rover and Land Rover products. 20 November – Margaret Thatcher fails to win outright victory in a leadership contest for the Conservative Party. Broadcaster John Sergeant's famous encounter with Margaret Thatcher on the steps of the British embassy in Paris. He was waiting for Thatcher in the hope of hearing her reaction to the first ballot in the party leadership contest of 1990, only to be pushed aside by her press secretary, Sir Bernard Ingham, when Thatcher emerges from the building. Sergeant later wins the British Press Guild award for the most memorable broadcast of the year. 22 November – Margaret Thatcher announces her resignation as Leader of the Conservative Party and therefore as Prime Minister, having led the government for more than 11 years and the Conservative Party for nearly 16 years. She was the longest serving prime minister of the 20th century. 26 November – Plastic surgeons Michael Masser and Kenneth Patton are murdered in Wakefield, West Yorkshire. 27 November – John Major is elected Leader of the Conservative Party, defeating Douglas Hurd and Michael Heseltine. 28 November – John Major appointed Prime Minister by the Queen, as Margaret Thatcher officially tenders her resignation after leaving 10 Downing Street for the last time. 1 December - Channel Tunnel workers from the United Kingdom and France meet 40 metres beneath the English Channel seabed, establishing the first land connection between the United Kingdom and the mainland of Europe for around 8,000 years. With the media watching, the two ends of the service tunnel of the Channel Tunnel are joined together, linking Britain and France for the first time since the Ice Age. A handshake then takes place between Englishman Graham Fagg and Frenchman Phillippe Cozette, after which British and French workers board trains to complete the first journey between the two countries. The CBI predicts that the recession will last longer than predicted, and that GDP is likely to fall by at least 1% in 1991. 3 December – The mother of Gail Kinchin is awarded £8,000 in High Court, a decade after her pregnant 16-year-old daughter was killed by a police marksman who intervened with a siege at the Birmingham flat where she was being held hostage by her boyfriend. 6 December - Saddam Hussein announces that all British hostages in Iraq are to be released. House price inflation has returned and stands at 0.2% for November, the first year-on-year rise in house prices since February. 8 December – The UK grinds to a halt following heavy snow overnight. Large parts of the country are without power after snowfall brings down power lines, disrupting the electricity supply. Many rural areas are cut off for several days, while the Army is called out to help restore power. There is grim news for the retail industry as a CBI survey reports that retail sales have hit a standstill and High Street employment will fall. 9 December – Cilla Black hosts Happy Birthday Coronation Street, an evening of entertainment on ITV to celebrate the 30th anniversary of the long–running soap. 11 December - The first British hostages in Iraq released by Saddam Hussein arrive back in the UK. The government makes £42 million compensation available to the 1,200 British haemophiliacs infected with the AIDS virus through blood transfusions. 12 December – The new chancellor Norman Lamont rules out an early cut in interest rates which critics, including opposition MP's, claim would be a quick route out of recession. 13 December - Russell Bishop is sentenced to life imprisonment (with a recommended minimum of 15 years) for the abduction, indecent assault and attempted murder of a seven-year-old girl in Brighton earlier this year. Bishop, 24, was cleared of murdering two other girls in 1987. Poundland, a supermarket chain selling all items for £1, opens its first store at Burton-upon-Trent, Staffordshire. Netto, a Danish discount food supermarket chain, opens its first store in Britain in Leeds. The sharpest rise in unemployment since 1981 has taken it to more than 1,700,000, with 155,000 jobs having been lost in Britain since April. Economists blame high interest rates; a government method to combat inflation. 19 December – Tony Adams, the Arsenal captain and England defender, is sentenced to four months in prison for a drink-driving offence committed in Southend-on-Sea on 6 May this year. 20 December - British women Karyn Smith (aged 19) and Patricia Cahill (aged 20) receive 25-year prison sentences in Thailand for heroin smuggling. Their lawyers are planning to ask for a Royal pardon. An era ends in the Rhondda, South Wales, when the last coalmine closes after more than 100 years of heavy coalmining in the region. 300 miners have lost their jobs and just seventeen will remain employed in the industry elsewhere. 23 December – The nine-month-old daughter of the Duke and Duchess of York is christened Eugenie Victoria Helena. 25 December – Storms on Christmas Day leave more than 100,000 British homes without power. 26 December – The fatwa (order to kill) against Satanic Verses author Salman Rushdie is upheld by Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, more than one year after it was first issued. Rushdie is still living in hiding. 27 December – The latest MORI poll shows that Conservative support has been boosted by the appointment of John Major, with his party now just four points behind Labour – eight months after Labour had peaked with a 23-point lead. 29 December – Leading economists warn that the recession creeping upon Britain will deepen during 1991 and unemployment is likely to increase to well over 2,000,000 from the current total of over 1,700,000. 30 December – An opinion poll shows Labour slightly ahead of the Conservatives for the first time since John Major became prime minister. 31 December – 88-year-old author Barbara Cartland becomes a Dame in the New Year's Honours. Inflation reached 9.5% for the first time since 1981. 0.1% of the UK population (some 60,000 people) now have access to the internet. Television BBC1 4 January – One Foot in the Grave (1990–2000) 26 March – Turnabout (1990–1996) 21 April – 8:15 from Manchester (1990–1992) 28 June – Waiting for God (1990–1994) 2 July – MasterChef (1990–2001, 2005–present) 29 October – Keeping Up Appearances (1990–1995) BBC2 2 July – MasterChef (1990–2001, 2005–present) 28 September – Have I Got News for You (1990–present) 3 October – The Mary Whitehouse Experience (1990–1992) 8 November – Harry Enfield's Television Programme (1990–1998) ITV 1 January – Mr. Bean (1990–1995) 1 January – Nellie the Elephant (1990–1991) 7 February – El C.I.D. (1990–1992) No Job for a Lady (1990–1992) 28 February – Spatz (1990–1992) 6 March – Chancer (1990–1991) 16 April – You've Been Framed! (1990–present) 22 April – Jeeves and Wooster (1990–1993) 23 April – Families (1990–1993) 1 May – The Upper Hand (1990–1996) 1 June – The $64,000 Question (1990–1993) 15 June – Art Attack (1990–2007 ITV, 2011–present Disney) 21 July – Stars in Their Eyes (1990–2006, 2015–present) 7 September – The Piglet Files (1990–1992) 25 September – The Dreamstone (1990–1995) 26 September – How 2 (1990–2006) 29 December – The Widowmaker Channel 4 February – Cutting Edge (1990–present) 15 February – The Crystal Maze (1990–1995) 9 August – Drop the Dead Donkey (1990–1998) Sky One 2 September – The Simpsons (1990–present) Music Charts Number-one singles "Do They Know It's Christmas?" - Band Aid II "Hangin' Tough" - New Kids on the Block "Tears on My Pillow" - Kylie Minogue "Nothing Compares 2 U" - Sinéad O'Connor "Dub Be Good to Me" - Beats International "The Power" - Snap! "Vogue" - Madonna "Killer" - Adamski featuring Seal "World in Motion" - New Order "Sacrifice / Healing Hands" - Elton John "Turtle Power" - Partners in Kryme "Itsy Bitsy Teenie Weenie Yellow Polka Dot Bikini" - Timmy Mallett with Bombalurina "The Joker" - Steve Miller Band "Show Me Heaven" - Maria McKee "A Little Time" - The Beautiful South "Unchained Melody" - The Righteous Brothers "Ice Ice Baby" - Vanilla Ice "Saviour's Day" - Cliff Richard

www.facebook.com/paintingwithlightbyschauer Dieses Kunstwerk stellt ein Salzkristall in 100-facher Vergrößerung dar. www.clipfish.de/special/trp-1/video/4078420/passau-kunst-... Quelle: Clipfish Passau (previously Latin: Batavis or Batavia) is a town in Lower Bavaria, Germany. It is also known as the Dreiflüssestadt or "City of Three Rivers," because the Danube is joined at Passau by the Inn from the south and the Ilz from the north. Passau's population is 50,415, of whom about 11,000 are students at the local University of Passau. The university, founded in the late 1970s, is the extension of the Institute for Catholic Studies (Katholisch-Theologische Fakultät) founded in 1622.[2] It is renowned in Germany for its institutes of Economics, Law, Theology, Computer Sciences and Cultural Studies. In the 2nd century BC, many of the Boii tribe were pushed north across the Alps out of northern Italy by the Romans. They established a new capital called Boiodurum by the Romans (from Gaulish Boioduron), now within the Innstadt district of Passau.[3] Passau was an ancient Roman colony of ancient Noricum called Batavis, Latin for "for the Batavi." The Batavi were an ancient Germanic tribe often mentioned by classical authors, and they were regularly associated with the Suebian marauders, the Heruli. During the second half of the 5th century, St. Severinus established a monastery here. In 739, an English monk called Boniface founded the diocese of Passau and this was the largest diocese of the Holy Roman Empire for many years. In the Treaty of Passau (1552), Archduke Ferdinand I, representing Emperor Charles V, secured the agreement of the Protestant princes to submit the religious question to a diet. This led to the Peace of Augsburg in 1555. During the Renaissance and early modern period, Passau was one of the most prolific centres of sword and bladed weapon manufacture in Germany (after Solingen). Passau smiths stamped their blades with the Passau wolf, usually a rather simplified rendering of the wolf on the city's coat-of-arms. Superstitious warriors believed that the Passau wolf conferred invulnerability on the blade's bearer, and thus Passau swords acquired a great premium. As a result, the whole practice of placing magical charms on swords to protect the wearers came to be known for a time as "Passau art." (See Eduard Wagner, Cut and Thrust Weapons, 1969). Other cities' smiths, including those of Solingen, recognized the marketing value of the Passau wolf and adopted it for themselves. By the 17th century, Solingen was producing more wolf-stamped blades than Passau was. In 1662, a devastating fire consumed most of the city. Passau was subsequently rebuilt in the Baroque style. Passau was secularised and divided between Bavaria and Salzburg in 1803. The portion belonging to Salzburg became part of Bavaria in 1805. From 1892 until 1894, Adolf Hitler and his family lived in Passau. The city archives mention Hitler being in Passau on four different occasions in the 1920s for speeches. On November 3, 1902 Heinrich Himmler and his family arrived from Munich. They lived at Theresienstraße 394 (currently Theresienstraße 22) until September 2, 1904. Himmler maintained contact with locals until May 1945. During World War II, the town housed three sub-camps of the infamous Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp: Passau I (Oberilzmühle), Passau II (Waldwerke Passau-Ilzstadt) and Passau III (Jandelsbrunn). On May 3, 1945, a message from Major General Stanley Eric Reinhart’s 261st Infantry Regiment stated at 3:15 am: "AMG Officer has unconditional surrender of PASSAU signed by Burgermeister, Chief of Police and Lt. Col of Med Corps there. All troops are to turn themselves in this morning." It was the site of a post World War II American sector displaced persons camp. Even now there are some sights pertaining to World War II in the city of Passau. On the 2nd of June 2013 the old town suffered from severe flooding as a result of several days of rain and its location at the confluence of three rivers [4] Till 2013, the City of Passau was subdivided into eight statistical districts, which in general coincide with formerly separate municipalities. Since 2013, the city is divided in 16 so-called areas of open council ("Bürgerversammlungsgebiete"). Main sights Tourism in Passau focuses mainly on the three rivers, the St. Stephen's Cathedral (Der Passauer Stephansdom) and the "Old City" (Die Altstadt). With 17,774 pipes and 233 registers, the organ at St. Stephen's was long held to be the largest church pipe organ in the world and is today second in size only to the organ at First Congregational Church, Los Angeles, which was expanded in 1994. Organ concerts are held daily between May and September. St.Stephen's is a true masterpiece of Italian Baroque, built by Italian architect Carlo Lurago and decorated in part by Carpoforo Tencalla. Many river cruises down the Danube start at Passau and there is a cycling path all the way down to Vienna. It is also notable for its gothic and baroque architecture. The town is dominated by the Veste Oberhaus and the former fortress of the Bishop, on the mountain crest between the Danube and the Ilz rivers. Right beside the town hall is the Scharfrichterhaus, an important jazz and cabaret stage on which political cabaret is performed. Quelle: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passau Salt is a mineral substance composed primarily of sodium chloride (NaCl), a chemical compound belonging to the larger class of ionic salts; salt in its natural form as a crystalline mineral is known as rock salt or halite. Salt is present in vast quantities in the sea where it is the main mineral constituent, with the open ocean having about 35 grams (1.2 oz) of solids per litre, a salinity of 3.5%. Salt is essential for animal life, and saltiness is one of the basic human tastes. The tissues of animals contain larger quantities of salt than do plant tissues; therefore the typical diets of nomads who subsist on their flocks and herds require little or no added salt, whereas cereal-based diets require supplementation. Salt is one of the oldest and most ubiquitous of food seasonings, and salting is an important method of food preservation. Some of the earliest evidence of salt processing dates back to around 6,000 years ago, when people living in Romania were boiling spring water to extract the salts; a saltworks in China has been found which dates to approximately the same period. Salt was prized by the ancient Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, the Byzantines, the Hittites and the Egyptians. Salt became an important article of trade and was transported by boat across the Mediterranean Sea, along specially built salt roads, and across the Sahara in camel caravans. The scarcity and universal need for salt has led nations to go to war over salt and use it to raise tax revenues. Salt is also used in religious ceremonies and has other cultural significance. Salt is produced from salt mines or by the evaporation of seawater or mineral-rich spring water in shallow pools. Its major industrial products are caustic soda and chlorine, and it is used in many industrial processes and in the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride, plastics, paper pulp and many other products. Of the annual production of around two hundred million tonnes of salt, only about 6% is used for human consumption; other uses include water conditioning processes, de-icing highways and agricultural use. Edible salt is sold in forms such as sea salt and table salt which usually contains an anti-caking agent and may be iodised to prevent iodine deficiency. As well as its use in cooking and at the table, salt is present in many processed foods. Too much sodium in the diet raises blood pressure and may increase the risk of heart attacks and strokes. The World Health Organization recommends that adults should consume less than 2,000 mg of sodium which is equivalent to 5 grams of salt per day. While people have used canning and artificial refrigeration to preserve food for the last hundred years or so, salt has been the best-known food preservative, especially for meat, for many thousands of years.[1] A very ancient saltworks operation has been discovered at the Poiana Slatinei archaeological site next to a salt spring in Lunca, Neamț County, Romania. Evidence indicates that Neolithic people of the Precucuteni Culture were boiling the salt-laden spring water through the process of briquetage to extract the salt as far back as 6050 BC.[2] The salt extracted from this operation may have had a direct correlation to the rapid growth of this society's population soon after its initial production began.[3] The harvest of salt from the surface of Xiechi Lake near Yuncheng in Shanxi, China, dates back to at least 6000 BC, making it one of the oldest verifiable saltworks.[4] There is more salt in animal tissues such as meat, blood and milk, than there is in plant tissues.[5] Nomads who subsist on their flocks and herds do not eat salt with their food, but agriculturalists, feeding mainly on cereals and vegetable matter, need to supplement their diet with salt.[6] With the spread of civilization, salt became one of the world's main trading commodities. It was of high value to the ancient Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, the Byzantines, the Hittites and other peoples of antiquity. In the Middle East, salt was used to ceremonially seal an agreement, and the ancient Hebrews made a "covenant of salt" with God and sprinkled salt on their offerings to show their trust in Him.[7] An ancient practice in time of war was salting the earth: scattering salt around in a defeated city in order to prevent plant growth. Abimelech was ordered by God to do this at Shechem,[8] and various texts claim that the Roman general Scipio Aemilianus Africanus ploughed over and sowed the city of Carthage with salt after it was defeated in the Third Punic War (146 BC) Salt may have been used for barter in connection with the obsidian trade in Anatolia in the Neolithic Era.[10] Herodotus described salt trading routes across Libya back in the 5th century BC. In the early years of the Roman Empire, roads such as the Via Salaria were built for the transportation of salt from the salt pans of Ostia to the capital.[11] Salt was included among funeral offerings found in ancient Egyptian tombs from the third millennium BC, as were salted birds, and salt fish.[12] From about 2800 BC, the Egyptians began exporting salt fish to the Phoenicians in return for Lebanon cedar, glass and the dye Tyrian purple; the Phoenicians traded Egyptian salt fish and salt from North Africa throughout their Mediterranean trade empire.[13] In Africa, salt was used as currency south of the Sahara, and slabs of rock salt were used as coins in Abyssinia.[6] Moorish merchants in the 6th century traded salt for gold, weight for weight. The Tuareg have traditionally maintained routes across the Sahara especially for the transportation of salt by Azalai (salt caravans). The caravans still cross the desert from southern Niger to Bilma, although much of the trade now takes place by truck. Each camel takes two bales of fodder and two of trade goods northwards and returns laden with salt pillars and dates.[14] Salzburg, Hallstatt, and Hallein lie within 17 km (11 mi) of each other on the river Salzach in central Austria in an area with extensive salt deposits. Salzach literally means "salt river" and Salzburg "salt castle", both taking their names from the German word Salz meaning salt and Hallstatt was the site of the world's first salt mine.[15] The town gave its name to the Hallstatt culture that began mining for salt in the area in about 800 BC. Around 400 BC, the townsfolk, who had previously used pickaxes and shovels, began open pan salt making. During the first millennium BC, Celtic communities grew rich trading salt and salted meat to Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome in exchange for wine and other luxuries.[1] The word salary originates from Latin: salarium which referred to the money paid to the Roman Army's soldiers for the purchase of salt.[16] The word salad literally means "salted", and comes from the ancient Roman practice of salting leaf vegetables.[17] Wars have been fought over salt. Venice fought and won a war with Genoa over the product, and it played an important part in the American Revolution. Cities on overland trade routes grew rich by levying duties,[18] and towns like Liverpool flourished on the export of salt extracted from the salt mines of Cheshire.[19] Various governments have at different times imposed salt taxes on their peoples. The voyages of Christopher Columbus are said to have been financed from salt production in southern Spain, and the oppressive salt tax in France was one of the causes of the French Revolution. After being repealed, this tax was reimposed by Napoleon when he became emperor to pay for his foreign wars, and was not finally abolished until 1945.[18] In 1930, Mahatma Gandhi led at least 100,000 people on the "Dandi March" or "Salt Satyagraha", in which protesters made their own salt from the sea thus defying British rule and avoiding paying the salt tax. This civil disobedience inspired millions of common people, and elevated the Indian independence movement from an elitist movement to a national struggle.[20] Chemistry Salt, sodium chloride, is an ionic compound with the formula NaCl, representing equal proportions of sodium and chlorine. Salt crystals are translucent and cubic in shape; they normally appear white but impurities may give them a blue or purple tinge. The molar mass of salt is 58.443 g/mol, its melting point is 801 °C (1,474 °F) and its boiling point 1,465 °C (2,669 °F). Its density is 2.17 grams per cubic centimetre and it is readily soluble in water. When dissolved in water it separates into Na+ and Cl− ions and the solubility is 359 grams per litre.[21] From cold solutions, salt crystallises as the dihydrate NaCl•2H2O. Solutions of sodium chloride have very different properties from those of pure water; the freezing point is −21.12 °C (−6.02 °F) for 23.31 wt% of salt, and the boiling point of saturated salt solution is around 108.7 °C (227.7 °F).[22] Edible salt Salt is essential to the health of people and animals and is used universally as a seasoning. It is used in cooking, is added to manufactured foodstuffs and is often present on the table at mealtimes for individuals to sprinkle on their own food. Saltiness is one of the five basic taste sensations. In many cuisines around the world, salt is used in cooking, and is often found in salt shakers on diners' eating tables for their personal use on food. Table salt is a refined salt containing about 97 to 99 percent sodium chloride.[24][25][26] Usually, anticaking agents such as sodium aluminosilicate or magnesium carbonate are added to make it free-flowing. Some people put a desiccant, such as a few grains of uncooked rice[27] or a saltine cracker, in their salt shakers to absorb extra moisture and help break up salt clumps that may otherwise form.[28] Fortified table salt Some table salt sold for consumption contain additives which address a variety of health concerns, especially in the developing world. The identities and amounts of additives vary widely from country to country. Iodine is an important micronutrient for humans, and a deficiency of the element can cause lowered production of thyroxine (hypothyroidism) and enlargement of the thyroid gland (endemic goitre) in adults or cretinism in children.[29] Iodized salt has been used to correct these conditions since 1924[30] and consists of table salt mixed with a minute amount of potassium iodide, sodium iodide or sodium iodate. A small amount of dextrose may also be added to stabilize the iodine.[31] Iodine deficiency affects about two billion people around the world and is the leading preventable cause of mental retardation.[32] Iodized table salt has significantly reduced disorders of iodine deficiency in countries where it is used.[33] The amount of iodine and the specific iodine compound added to salt varies from country to country. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends [21 CFR 101.9 (c)(8)(iv)] 150 micrograms of iodine per day for both men and women. US iodized salt contains 46–77 ppm (parts per million), whereas in the UK the iodine content of iodized salt is recommended to be 10–22 ppm.[34] Sodium ferrocyanide, also known as yellow prussiate of soda, is sometimes added to salt as an anticaking agent. The additive is considered safe for human consumption.[35][36] Such anti-caking agents have been added since at least 1911 when magnesium carbonate was first added to salt to make it flow more freely.[37] The safety of sodium ferrocyanide as a food additive was found to be provisionally acceptable by the Committee on Toxicity in 1988.[35] Other anticaking agents sometimes used include tricalcium phosphate, calcium or magnesium carbonates, fatty acid salts (acid salts), magnesium oxide, silicon dioxide, calcium silicate, sodium aluminosilicate and calcium aluminosilicate. Both the European Union and the United States Food and Drug Administration permitted the use of aluminium in the latter two compounds.[38] In "doubly fortified salt", both iodide and iron salts are added. The latter alleviates iron deficiency anaemia, which interferes with the mental development of an estimated 40% of infants in the developing world. A typical iron source is ferrous fumarate.[39] Another additive, especially important for pregnant women, is folic acid (vitamin B9), which gives the table salt a yellow color. Folic acid helps prevent neural tube defects and anaemia, which affect young mothers, especially in developing countries.[39] A lack of fluorine in the diet is the cause of a greatly increased incidence of dental caries.[40] Fluoride salts can be added to table salt with the goal of reducing tooth decay, especially in countries that have not benefited from fluoridated toothpastes and fluoridated water. The practice is more common in some European countries where water fluoridation is not carried out. In France, 35% of the table salt sold contains added sodium fluoride.[39] Other kinds Unrefined sea salt contains small amounts of magnesium and calcium halides and sulphates, traces of algal products, salt-resistant bacteria and sediment particles. The calcium and magnesium salts confer a faintly bitter overtone, and they make unrefined sea salt hygroscopic (i.e., it gradually absorbs moisture from air if stored uncovered). Algal products contribute a mildly "fishy" or "sea-air" odour, the latter from organobromine compounds. Sediments, the proportion of which varies with the source, give the salt a dull grey appearance. Since taste and aroma compounds are often detectable by humans in minute concentrations, sea salt may have a more complex flavour than pure sodium chloride when sprinkled on top of food. When salt is added during cooking however, these flavours would likely be overwhelmed by those of the food ingredients.[41] The refined salt industry cites scientific studies saying that raw sea and rock salts do not contain enough iodine salts to prevent iodine deficiency diseases.[42] Different natural salts have different mineralities depending on their source, giving each one a unique flavour. Fleur de sel, a natural sea salt from the surface of evaporating brine in salt pans, has a unique flavour varying with the region from which it is produced. In traditional Korean cuisine, so-called "bamboo salt" is prepared by roasting salt[43] in a bamboo container plugged with mud at both ends. This product absorbs minerals from the bamboo and the mud, and has been claimed to increase the anticlastogenic and antimutagenic properties of doenjang (a fermented bean paste).[44] Kosher salt, though refined, contains no iodine and has a much larger grain size than most refined salts. This can give it different properties when used in cooking, and can be useful for preparing kosher meat. Some kosher salt has been certified to meet kosher requirements by a hechsher, but this is not true for all products labelled as kosher salt.[45] Salt in food Salt is present in most foods, but in naturally occurring foodstuffs such as meats, vegetables and fruit, it is present in very small quantities. It is often added to processed foods to make their flavour more appealing and is also present at higher levels in preserved foods. Thus herring contains 67 mg sodium per 100 g, while kipper, its preserved form, contains 990 mg. Similarly, pork typically contains 63 mg while bacon contains 1480 mg, and potatoes contain 7 mg but potato crisps 800 mg per 100 g.[5] The main sources of salt in the diet, apart from direct use of sodium chloride, are bread and cereal products, meat products and milk and dairy products.[5] In many East Asian cultures, salt is not traditionally used as a condiment.[46] In its place, condiments such as soy sauce, fish sauce and oyster sauce tend to have a high sodium content and fill a similar role to table salt in western cultures. They are most often used for cooking rather than as table condiments.[47] Diet and health Main article: Health effects of salt Table salt is made up of just under 40% sodium by weight, so a 6 g serving (1 teaspoon) contains about 2,300 mg of sodium.[48] Sodium serves a useful purpose in the human body: it helps nerves and muscles to function correctly, and it is one of the factors involved in the regulation of water content (fluid balance).[49] Most of the sodium in the Western diet comes from salt.[50] The habitual salt intake in many Western countries is about 10 g per day, and it is higher than that in many countries in Eastern Europe and Asia.[51] The high level of sodium in many processed foods has a major impact on the total amount consumed.[52] In the United States, 77% of the sodium eaten comes from processed and restaurant foods, 11% from cooking and table use and the rest from what is found naturally in foodstuffs.[53] Too much sodium appears to be bad for health, and health organizations generally recommend that people reduce their dietary intake of salt.[54][55] High salt intake is associated with a greater risk of stroke and total cardiovascular disease in susceptible people.[51] Direct evidence, however, is unclear if a low salt diet affects overall or cardiovascular related deaths.[56] In adults and children with no acute illness, a decrease in the intake of sodium from the typical high levels reduces blood pressure.[54][57] A low salt diet results in a greater improvement in blood pressure in those with hypertension than in those without.[58] The World Health Organization recommends that all adults should consume less than 2,000 mg of sodium (which is equivalent to 5 g of salt) per day[55] with some advocating for less than 1,200 mg of sodium (3 g of salt) per day.[54] There is insufficient evidence to show that there is additional benefit in lowering sodium intake to less than 2,300 mg per day.[59] In those with heart failure a very low sodium diet may be worse than a diet with slightly more salt.[56] Non-dietary uses Only about 6% of the salt manufactured in the world is used in food. Of the remainder, 12% is used in water conditioning processes, 8% goes for de-icing highways and 6% is used in agriculture. The rest (68%) is used for manufacturing and other industrial processes,[60] and sodium chloride is one of the largest inorganic raw materials used by volume. Its major chemical products are caustic soda and chlorine, which are separated by the electrolysis of a pure brine solution. These are used in the manufacture of PVC, plastics, paper pulp and many other inorganic and organic compounds. Salt is also used as a flux in the production of aluminium. For this purpose, a layer of melted salt floats on top of the molten metal and removes iron and other metal contaminants. It is also used in the manufacture of soaps and glycerine, where it is added to the vat to precipitate out the saponified products. As an emulsifier, salt is used in the manufacture of synthetic rubber, and another use is in the firing of pottery, when salt added to the furnace vaporises before condensing onto the surface of the ceramic material, forming a strong glaze.[61] When drilling through loose materials such as sand or gravel, salt may be added to the boring mud to provide a stable "wall" to prevent the hole collapsing. There are many other processes in which salt is involved. These include its use as a mordant in textile dying, to regenerate resins in water softening, for the tanning of hides, the preservation of meat and fish and the canning of meat and vegetables. The manufacture of salt is one of the oldest chemical industries.[64] A major source of salt is seawater, which has a salinity of approximately 3.5%. This means that there are about 35 grams (1.2 oz) of dissolved salts, predominantly sodium (Na+ ) and chloride (Cl− ) ions, per kilogram (2.2 lbs) of water.[65] The world's oceans are a virtually inexhaustible source of salt, and this abundance of supply means that reserves have not been calculated.[62] The evaporation of seawater is the production method of choice in marine countries with high evaporation and low precipitation rates. Salt evaporation ponds are filled from the ocean and salt crystals can be harvested as the water dries up. Sometimes these ponds have vivid colours, as some species of algae and other micro-organisms thrive in conditions of high salinity.[66] Elsewhere, salt is extracted from the vast sedimentary deposits which have been laid down over the millennia from the evaporation of seas and lakes. These are either mined directly, producing rock salt, or are extracted in solution by pumping water into the deposit. In either case, the salt may be purified by mechanical evaporation of brine. Traditionally, this was done in shallow open pans which were heated to increase the rate of evaporation. More recently, the process is performed in pans under vacuum.[63] The raw salt is refined to purify it and improve its storage and handling characteristics. This usually involves recrystallization during which a brine solution is treated with chemicals that precipitate most impurities (largely magnesium and calcium salts). Multiple stages of evaporation are then used to collect pure sodium chloride crystals, which are kiln-dried.[67] Some salt is produced using the Alberger process, which involves vacuum pan evaporation combined with the seeding of the solution with cubic crystals, and produces a grainy-type flake.[68] The Ayoreo, an indigenous group from the Paraguayan Chaco, obtain their salt from the ash produced by burning the timber of the Indian salt tree (Maytenus vitis-idaea) and other trees.[69] One of the largest salt mining operations in the world is at the Khewra Salt Mine in Pakistan. The mine has nineteen storeys, eleven of which are underground, and 400 km (250 mi) of passages. The salt is dug out by the room and pillar method, where about half the material is left in place to support the upper levels. Extraction of Himalayan salt is expected to last 350 years at the present rate of extraction of around 385,000 tons per annum.[70] In 2002, total world production (of sodium chloride in general, not just table salt) was estimated at 210 million tonnes, the top five producers being the United States (40.3 million tonnes), China (32.9), Germany (17.7), India (14.5) and Canada (12.3).[71] During the period 2003 to 2008, global production of salt increased by 12% per year, and China took over as the largest producing nation as its chemical industry expanded.[62] Food grade salt accounts for only a small part of salt production in industrialized countries (7% in Europe),[72] although worldwide, food uses account for 17.5% of salt production.[73] Usage in religion Salt has long held an important place in religion and culture. At the time of Brahmanic sacrifices, in Hittite rituals and during festivals held by Semites and Greeks at the time of the new moon, salt was thrown into a fire where it produced crackling noises.[74] The ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans invoked their gods with offerings of salt and water and some people think this to be the origin of Holy Water in the Christian faith.[75] In Aztec mythology, Huixtocihuatl was a fertility goddess who presided over salt and salt water.[76] In one of the hadiths recorded in Sunan Ibn Majah, the Islamic Prophet Muhammad is reported to have said that: "Salt is the master of your food. God sent down four blessings from the sky – fire, water, iron and salt".[77] Salt is considered to be a very auspicious substance in Hinduism and is used in particular religious ceremonies like house-warmings and weddings.[77] In Jainism, devotees lay an offering of raw rice with a pinch of salt before a deity to signify their devotion and salt is sprinkled on a person's cremated remains before the ashes are buried.[78] Salt is believed to ward off evil spirits in Buddhist tradition, and when returning home from a funeral, a pinch of salt is thrown over the left shoulder as this prevents evil spirits from entering the house.[79] In Shinto, salt is used for ritual purification of locations and people (harae, specifically shubatsu), and small piles of salt are placed in dishes by the entrance of establishments for the two-fold purposes of warding off evil and attracting patrons.[80] In the Hebrew Bible, there are thirty-five verses which mention salt.[81] One of these is the story of Lot's wife, who was turned into a pillar of salt when she looked back at the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah (Genesis 19:26) as they were destroyed. When the judge Abimelech destroyed the city of Shechem, he is said to have "sown salt on it," probably as a curse on anyone who would re-inhabit it (Judges 9:45). The Book of Job contains the first mention of salt as a condiment. "Can that which is unsavoury be eaten without salt? or is there any taste in the white of an egg?" (Job 6:6).[81] In the New Testament, six verses mention salt. In the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus referred to his followers as the "salt of the earth". The apostle Paul also encouraged Christians to "let your conversation be always full of grace, seasoned with salt" (Colossians 4:6).[81] Salt is mandatory in the rite of the Tridentine Mass.[82] Salt is used in the third item (which includes an Exorcism) of the Celtic Consecration (cf. Gallican Rite) that is employed in the consecration of a church. Salt may be added to the water "where it is customary" in the Roman Catholic rite of Holy water.[82] In Judaism, it is recommended to have either a salty bread or to add salt to the bread if this bread is unsalted when doing Kiddush for Shabbat. It is customary to spread some salt over the bread or to dip the bread in a little salt when passing the bread around the table after the Kiddush.[83] To preserve the covenant between their people and God, Jews dip the Sabbath bread in salt.[75] In Wicca, salt is symbolic of the element Earth. It is also believed to cleanse an area of harmful or negative energies. A dish of salt and a dish of water are almost always present on an altar, and salt is used in a wide variety of rituals and ceremonies. Quelle: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt A viaduct is a bridge composed of several small spans[1] for crossing a valley or a gorge.The term viaduct is derived from the Latin via for road and ducere, to lead. However, the ancient Romans did not use the term; it is a modern derivation from an analogy with aqueduct.[4] Like the Roman aqueducts, many early viaducts comprised a series of arches of roughly equal length. Viaducts may span land or water or both. The longest viaduct in antiquity may have been the Pont Serme which crossed wide marshes in southern France.[6] In Romance languages, the word viaduct refers to a bridge which spans only land. A bridge spanning water is called ponte. Over land Viaducts are commonly used in many cities that are railroad centers, such as Chicago, Atlanta, Birmingham, London, and Manchester. These viaducts cross the large railroad yards that are needed for freight trains there, and also cross the multi-track railroad lines that are needed for heavy railroad traffic. These viaducts keep highway and city street traffic from having to be continually interrupted by the train traffic. Likewise, some viaducts carry railroads over large valleys, or they carry railroads over cities with many cross-streets and avenues. Many viaducts over land connect points of similar height in a landscape, usually by bridging a river valley or other eroded opening in an otherwise flat area. Often such valleys had roads descending either side (with a small bridge over the river, where necessary) that become inadequate for the traffic load, necessitating a viaduct for "through" traffic.[7] Such bridges also lend themselves for use by rail traffic, which requires straighter and flatter routes.[8] Some viaducts have more than one deck, such that one deck has vehicular traffic and another deck having rail traffic. One example of this is the Prince Edward Viaduct in Toronto, Canada, that carries motor traffic on the top deck as Bloor Street, and metro as the Bloor-Danforth subway line on the lower deck, over the steep Don River valley. Others were built to span settled areas and crossed over roads beneath - the reason for many viaducts in London. Over water Viaducts over water are often combined with other types of bridges or tunnels to cross navigable waters. The viaduct sections, while less expensive to design and build than tunnels or bridges with larger spans, typically lack sufficient horizontal and vertical clearance for large ships. See the Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel. The Millau Viaduct is a cable-stayed road-bridge that spans the valley of the River Tarn near Millau in southern France. Designed by the French bridge engineer Michel Virlogeux, in collaboration with architect Norman Robert Foster, it is the tallest vehicular bridge in the world, with one pier's summit at 343 metres (1,125 ft)—slightly taller than the Eiffel Tower and only 38 m (125 ft) shorter than the Empire State Building. It was formally dedicated on 14 December 2004 and opened to traffic two days later. The viaduct Danyang–Kunshan Grand Bridge in China is the longest bridge in the world according to Guinness World Records as of 2011. Land use below viaducts Where a viaduct is built across land rather than water, the space below the arches may be used for businesses such as car parking, vehicle repairs, light industry, bars and nightclubs. In the United Kingdom, many railway lines in urban areas have been constructed on viaducts, and so the infrastructure owner Network Rail has an extensive property portfolio in arches under viaducts.[10] Past and future[edit] Elevated expressways were built in rich cities such as Boston (Central Artery), Seoul, Tokyo, Toronto (Gardiner Expressway).[11] Some were demolished because they were ugly and divided the city.[citation needed] However in developing nations such as Thailand, India (Delhi-Gurgaon Expressway), China, Bangladesh, Pakistan, elevated expressways have been built and more are under construction to improve traffic flow, particularly as a workaround of land shortage when built atop surface roads.[citation needed] In Indonesia viaducts are used for railways in Java and also for highways such as the Jakarta Inner Ring Road. Quelle: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viaduct

Sinónimo: Quercus banja Buch.- Ham. ex D.Don. Arboles perennifolios de hasta 25 m de alto. Hojas desde ovadas y obovadas hasta elípticas, con 8-16 cm de largo por 3-8 cm de ancho, rugosas; haz glabro o pubescente en el nervio central; envés densamente tomentoso, amarillento o blanquecino; margen con 6-12 dientes de 2-7 mm de largo a cada lado; peciolos pubescentes, de 1-2 cm de largo. Bellotas de maduración anual, sobre pedúnculos de hasta 3 cm, elipsoidales u ovadas, de hasta 1,5 cm de largo; cúpula hemisférica de hasta 1 cm de diámetro.Especie nativa del Himalaya, Assam, norte de Birmania y de Tailandia y sur de Vietnam. Sinonimoa: Quercus banja Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don. Zuhaitz hostoiraunkorra; gehienez, 25 m-koa. Hostoak obatuak, obobatuak edo eliptikoak, 8-16 cm-ko luzera eta 3-8 cm-ko zabalerakoak, latzak; gainaldea glabroa edo ilaunduna erdiko zainean; azpialdea oso ilupaduna, horixka edo zurixka; ertzean 6-12 hortz, 2-7 mm-ko luzerakoak, alde bakoitzean; peziolo ilaundunak, 1-2 cm-ko luzerakoak. Ezkurrak urtero heltzen dira, 3 cm arteko pezioloekin, elipsoidalak edo obatuak, 1,5 cm-ko luzerakoak gehienez; kupula hemisferikoa, 1 cm-ko diametrokoa, gehienez. Espeziearen jatorrizko eskualdeak: Himalaia, Assam, Birmaniako iparraldea, Tailandia eta Vietnamgo hegoaldea. Synonyme: Quercus banja Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don. Arbres pérennes de 25 m de hauteur maximum. Feuilles d’ovales et obovales à elliptiques, de 8-16 cm de long sur 3-8 cm de large, rugueuses ; adaxial glabre ou pubescent sur la nervure centrale ; abaxial avec du tomentum dense, jaunâtre ou blanchâtre ; bord avec 6-12 dents de 2-7 mm de long de chaque côté ; pétioles pubescents, de 1-2 cm de long. Glands à maturation annuelle, sur pédoncules de 3 cm maximum, ellipsoïdaux ou ovales, de 1,5 cm de long maximum ; cupule hémisphérique de 1 cm de diamètre maximum. Espèce originaire de l’Himalaya, Assam, nord de la Birmanie et de Thaïlande et du sud du Vietnam. Synonym: Quercus banja Buch.-Ham ex D. Don. Evergreen trees up to 25 m in height. Leaves range from ovate and obovate to elliptical, are 8-16 cm long by 3-8 cm wide, and rugose; upper side is glabrous or pubescent on the midrib; underside is densely tomentous, yellowish or whitish; margin with six-twelve 2-7 mm-long teeth on each side; pubescent, 1-2 cm long petioles. Acorns ripen annually on peduncles up to 3 cm, they are ellipsoidal or ovate, and up to 1.5 cm long; hemispheric cupule up to 1 cm in diameter. Species native to the Himalayas, Assam, North Burma and Thailand and South Vietnam.

Rice is the seed of the grass species Oryza sativa (Asian rice) or Oryza glaberrima (African rice). As a cereal grain, it is the most widely consumed staple food for a large part of the world's human population, especially in Asia. It is the agricultural commodity with the third-highest worldwide production, after sugarcane and maize, according to 2012 FAOSTAT data. Since a large portion of maize crops are grown for purposes other than human consumption, rice is the most important grain with regard to human nutrition and caloric intake, providing more than one-fifth of the calories consumed worldwide by humans. Chinese legends attribute the domestication of rice to Shennong, the legendary emperor of China and inventor of Chinese agriculture. Genetic evidence has shown that rice originates from a single domestication 8,200–13,500 years ago in the Pearl River valley region of China. Previously, archaeological evidence had suggested that rice was domesticated in the Yangtze River valley region in China. From East Asia, rice was spread to Southeast and South Asia. Rice was introduced to Europe through Western Asia, and to the Americas through European colonization. There are many varieties of rice and culinary preferences tend to vary regionally. In some areas such as the Far East or Spain, there is a preference for softer and stickier varieties. Rice, a monocot, is normally grown as an annual plant, although in tropical areas it can survive as a perennial and can produce a ratoon crop for up to 30 years. The rice plant can grow to 1–1.8 m tall, occasionally more depending on the variety and soil fertility. It has long, slender leaves 50–100 cm long and 2–2.5 cm broad. The small wind-pollinated flowers are produced in a branched arching to pendulous inflorescence 30–50 cm long. The edible seed is a grain (caryopsis) 5–12 mm long and 2–3 mm thick. Rice cultivation is well-suited to countries and regions with low labor costs and high rainfall, as it is labor-intensive to cultivate and requires ample water. However, rice can be grown practically anywhere, even on a steep hill or mountain area with the use of water-controlling terrace systems. Although its parent species are native to Asia and certain parts of Africa, centuries of trade and exportation have made it commonplace in many cultures worldwide. The traditional method for cultivating rice is flooding the fields while, or after, setting the young seedlings. This simple method requires sound planning and servicing of the water damming and channeling, but reduces the growth of less robust weed and pest plants that have no submerged growth state, and deters vermin. While flooding is not mandatory for the cultivation of rice, all other methods of irrigation require higher effort in weed and pest control during growth periods and a different approach for fertilizing the soil. The name wild rice is usually used for species of the genera Zizania and Porteresia, both wild and domesticated, although the term may also be used for primitive or uncultivated varieties of Oryza. ETYMOLOGY First used in English in the middle of the 13th century, the word "rice" derives from the Old French ris, which comes from Italian riso, in turn from the Latin oriza, which derives from the Greek ὄρυζα (oruza). The Greek word is the source of all European words (cf. Welsh reis, German Reis, Lithuanian ryžiai, Serbo-Croatian riža, Polish ryż, Dutch rijst, Hungarian rizs, Romanian orez). The origin of the Greek word is unclear. It is sometimes held to be from the Tamil word அரிசி (arisi), or rather Old Tamil arici. However, Krishnamurti disagrees with the notion that Old Tamil arici is the source of the Greek term, and proposes that it was borrowed from descendants of Proto-Dravidian *wariñci instead. Mayrhofer suggests that the immediate source of the Greek word is to be sought in Old Iranian words of the types *vrīz- or *vrinj-, but these are ultimately traced back to Indo-Aryan (as in Sanskrit vrīhí-) and subsequently to Dravidian by Witzel and others. COOKING The varieties of rice are typically classified as long-, medium-, and short-grained. The grains of long-grain rice (high in amylose) tend to remain intact after cooking; medium-grain rice (high in amylopectin) becomes more sticky. Medium-grain rice is used for sweet dishes, for risotto in Italy, and many rice dishes, such as arròs negre, in Spain. Some varieties of long-grain rice that are high in amylopectin, known as Thai Sticky rice, are usually steamed. A stickier medium-grain rice is used for sushi; the stickiness allows rice to hold its shape when molded. Short-grain rice is often used for rice pudding. Instant rice differs from parboiled rice in that it is fully cooked and then dried, though there is a significant degradation in taste and texture. Rice flour and starch often are used in batters and breadings to increase crispiness. PREPARATION Rice is typically rinsed before cooking to remove excess starch. Rice produced in the US is usually fortified with vitamins and minerals, and rinsing will result in a loss of nutrients. Rice may be rinsed repeatedly until the rinse water is clear to improve the texture and taste. Rice may be soaked to decrease cooking time, conserve fuel, minimize exposure to high temperature, and reduce stickiness. For some varieties, soaking improves the texture of the cooked rice by increasing expansion of the grains. Rice may be soaked for 30 minutes up to several hours. Brown rice may be soaked in warm water for 20 hours to stimulate germination. This process, called germinated brown rice (GBR), activates enzymes and enhances amino acids including gamma-aminobutyric acid to improve the nutritional value of brown rice. This method is a result of research carried out for the United Nations International Year of Rice. PROCESSING Rice is cooked by boiling or steaming, and absorbs water during cooking. With the absorption method, rice may be cooked in a volume of water similar to the volume of rice. With the rapid-boil method, rice may be cooked in a large quantity of water which is drained before serving. Rapid-boil preparation is not desirable with enriched rice, as much of the enrichment additives are lost when the water is discarded. Electric rice cookers, popular in Asia and Latin America, simplify the process of cooking rice. Rice (or any other grain) is sometimes quickly fried in oil or fat before boiling (for example saffron rice or risotto); this makes the cooked rice less sticky, and is a cooking style commonly called pilaf in Iran and Afghanistan or biryani (Dam-pukhtak) in India and Pakistan. DISHES In Arab cuisine, rice is an ingredient of many soups and dishes with fish, poultry, and other types of meat. It is also used to stuff vegetables or is wrapped in grape leaves (dolma). When combined with milk, sugar, and honey, it is used to make desserts. In some regions, such as Tabaristan, bread is made using rice flour. Medieval Islamic texts spoke of medical uses for the plant. Rice may also be made into congee (also called rice porridge, fawrclaab, okayu, Xifan, jook, or rice gruel) by adding more water than usual, so that the cooked rice is saturated with water, usually to the point that it disintegrates. Rice porridge is commonly eaten as a breakfast food, and is also a traditional food for the sick. NUTRITION AND HEALTH NUTRIENTS AND NUTRITIONAL IMPORTANCE OF RICE Rice is the staple food of over half the world's population. It is the predominant dietary energy source for 17 countries in Asia and the Pacific, 9 countries in North and South America and 8 countries in Africa. Rice provides 20% of the world’s dietary energy supply, while wheat supplies 19% and maize (corn) 5%. A detailed analysis of nutrient content of rice suggests that the nutrition value of rice varies based on a number of factors. It depends on the strain of rice, that is between white, brown, red, and black (or purple) varieties of rice – each prevalent in different parts of the world. It also depends on nutrient quality of the soil rice is grown in, whether and how the rice is polished or processed, the manner it is enriched, and how it is prepared before consumption. An illustrative comparison between white and brown rice of protein quality, mineral and vitamin quality, carbohydrate and fat quality suggests that neither is a complete nutrition source. Between the two, there is a significant difference in fiber content and minor differences in other nutrients. Highly colored rice strains, such as black (purple) rice, derive their color from anthocyanins and tocols. Scientific studies suggest that these color pigments have antioxidant properties that may be useful to human health. In purple rice bran, hydrophilic antioxidants are in greater quantity and have higher free radical scavenging activity than lipophilic antioxidants. Anthocyanins and γ-tocols in purple rice are largely located in the inner portion of purple rice bran. Comparative nutrition studies on red, black and white varieties of rice suggest that pigments in red and black rice varieties may offer nutritional benefits. Red or black rice consumption was found to reduce or retard the progression of atherosclerotic plaque development, induced by dietary cholesterol, in mammals. White rice consumption offered no similar benefits, which the study suggests may be due in part to a lack of antioxidants found in red and black varieties of rice. ARSENIC CONCERNS Rice and rice products contain arsenic, a known poison and Group 1 carcinogen. There is no safe level of arsenic, but, as of 2012, a limit of 10 parts per billion has been established in the United States for drinking water, twice the level of 5 parts per billion originally proposed by the EPA. Consumption of one serving of some varieties of rice gives more exposure to arsenic than consumption of 1 liter of water that contains 5 parts per billion arsenic; however, the amount of arsenic in rice varies widely with the greatest concentration in brown rice and rice grown on land formerly used to grow cotton; in the United States, Arkansas, Louisiana, Missouri, and Texas. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is studying this issue, but has not established a limit. China has set a limit of 150 ppb for arsenic in rice. White rice grown in Arkansas, Louisiana, Missouri, and Texas, which account for 76 percent of American-produced rice had higher levels of arsenic than other regions of the world studied, possibly because of past use of arsenic-based pesticides to control cotton weevils. Jasmine rice from Thailand and Basmati rice from Pakistan and India contain the least arsenic among rice varieties in one study. BACILLUS CEREUS Cooked rice can contain Bacillus cereus spores, which produce an emetic toxin when left at 4–60 °C. When storing cooked rice for use the next day, rapid cooling is advised to reduce the risk of toxin production. One of the enterotoxins produced by Bacillus cereus is heat-resistant; reheating contaminated rice kills the bacteria, but does not destroy the toxin already present. RICE-GROWING ENVIRONMENTS Rice can be grown in different environments, depending upon water availability. Generally, rice does not thrive in a waterlogged area, yet it can survive and grow herein and it can also survive flooding. - Lowland, rainfed, which is drought prone, favors medium depth; waterlogged, submergence, and flood prone - Lowland, irrigated, grown in both the wet season and the dry season - Deep water or floating rice - Coastal Wetland - Upland rice is also known as Ghaiya rice, well known for its drought tolerance HISTORY OF DOMESTICATION AND CULTIVATION There have been plenty of debates on the origins of the domesticated rice. Genetic evidence published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS) shows that all forms of Asian rice, both indica and japonica, spring from a single domestication that occurred 8,200–13,500 years ago in China of the wild rice Oryza rufipogon. A 2012 study published in Nature, through a map of rice genome variation, indicated that the domestication of rice occurred in the Pearl River valley region of China based on the genetic evidence. From East Asia, rice was spread to South and Southeast Asia. Before this research, the commonly accepted view, based on archaeological evidence, is that rice was first domesticated in the region of the Yangtze River valley in China.Morphological studies of rice phytoliths from the Diaotonghuan archaeological site clearly show the transition from the collection of wild rice to the cultivation of domesticated rice. The large number of wild rice phytoliths at the Diaotonghuan level dating from 12,000–11,000 BP indicates that wild rice collection was part of the local means of subsistence. Changes in the morphology of Diaotonghuan phytoliths dating from 10,000–8,000 BP show that rice had by this time been domesticated. Soon afterwards the two major varieties of indica and japonica rice were being grown in Central China. In the late 3rd millennium BC, there was a rapid expansion of rice cultivation into mainland Southeast Asia and westwards across India and Nepal. In 2003, Korean archaeologists claimed to have discovered the world's oldest domesticated rice. Their 15,000-year-old age challenges the accepted view that rice cultivation originated in China about 12,000 years ago. These findings were received by academia with strong skepticism, and the results and their publicizing has been cited as being driven by a combination of nationalist and regional interests. In 2011, a combined effort by the Stanford University, New York University, Washington University in St. Louis, and Purdue University has provided the strongest evidence yet that there is only one single origin of domesticated rice, in the Yangtze Valley of China. Rice spread to the Middle East where, according to Zohary and Hopf (2000, p. 91), O. sativa was recovered from a grave at Susa in Iran (dated to the 1st century AD). PRODUCTION The world dedicated 162.3 million hectares in 2012 for rice cultivation and the total production was about 738.1 million tonnes. The average world farm yield for rice was 4.5 tonnes per hectare, in 2012. Rice farms in Egypt were the most productive in 2012, with a nationwide average of 9.5 tonnes per hectare. Second place: Australia – 8.9 tonnes per hectare. Third place: USA – 8.3 tonnes per hectare. Rice is a major food staple and a mainstay for the rural population and their food security. It is mainly cultivated by small farmers in holdings of less than 1 hectare. Rice is also a wage commodity for workers in the cash crop or non-agricultural sectors. Rice is vital for the nutrition of much of the population in Asia, as well as in Latin America and the Caribbean and in Africa; it is central to the food security of over half the world population. Developing countries account for 95% of the total production, with China and India alone responsible for nearly half of the world output. World production of rice has risen steadily from about 200 million tonnes of paddy rice in 1960 to over 678 million tonnes in 2009. The three largest producers of rice in 2009 were China (197 million tonnes), India (131 Mt), and Indonesia (64 Mt). Among the six largest rice producers, the most productive farms for rice, in 2009, were in China producing 6.59 tonnes per hectare. Many rice grain producing countries have significant losses post-harvest at the farm and because of poor roads, inadequate storage technologies, inefficient supply chains and farmer's inability to bring the produce into retail markets dominated by small shopkeepers. A World Bank – FAO study claims 8% to 26% of rice is lost in developing nations, on average, every year, because of post-harvest problems and poor infrastructure. Some sources claim the post-harvest losses to exceed 40%. Not only do these losses reduce food security in the world, the study claims that farmers in developing countries such as China, India and others lose approximately US$89 billion of income in preventable post-harvest farm losses, poor transport, the lack of proper storage and retail. One study claims that if these post-harvest grain losses could be eliminated with better infrastructure and retail network, in India alone enough food would be saved every year to feed 70 to 100 million people over a year. However, other writers have warned against dramatic assessments of post-harvest food losses, arguing that "worst-case scenarios" tend to be used rather than realistic averages and that in many cases the cost of avoiding losses exceeds the value of the food saved. The seeds of the rice plant are first milled using a rice huller to remove the chaff (the outer husks of the grain). At this point in the process, the product is called brown rice. The milling may be continued, removing the bran, i.e., the rest of the husk and the germ, thereby creating white rice. White rice, which keeps longer, lacks some important nutrients; moreover, in a limited diet which does not supplement the rice, brown rice helps to prevent the disease beriberi. Either by hand or in a rice polisher, white rice may be buffed with glucose or talc powder (often called polished rice, though this term may also refer to white rice in general), parboiled, or processed into flour. White rice may also be enriched by adding nutrients, especially those lost during the milling process. While the cheapest method of enriching involves adding a powdered blend of nutrients that will easily wash off (in the United States, rice which has been so treated requires a label warning against rinsing), more sophisticated methods apply nutrients directly to the grain, coating the grain with a water-insoluble substance which is resistant to washing. In some countries, a popular form, parboiled rice, is subjected to a steaming or parboiling process while still a brown rice grain. This causes nutrients from the outer husk, especially thiamine, to move into the grain itself. The parboil process causes a gelatinisation of the starch in the grains. The grains become less brittle, and the color of the milled grain changes from white to yellow. The rice is then dried, and can then be milled as usual or used as brown rice. Milled parboiled rice is nutritionally superior to standard milled rice. Parboiled rice has an additional benefit in that it does not stick to the pan during cooking, as happens when cooking regular white rice. This type of rice is eaten in parts of India and countries of West Africa are also accustomed to consuming parboiled rice. Despite the hypothetical health risks of talc (such as stomach cancer), talc-coated rice remains the norm in some countries due to its attractive shiny appearance, but it has been banned in some, and is no longer widely used in others (such as the United States). Even where talc is not used, glucose, starch, or other coatings may be used to improve the appearance of the grains. Rice bran, called nuka in Japan, is a valuable commodity in Asia and is used for many daily needs. It is a moist, oily inner layer which is heated to produce oil. It is also used as a pickling bed in making rice bran pickles and takuan. Raw rice may be ground into flour for many uses, including making many kinds of beverages, such as amazake, horchata, rice milk, and rice wine. Rice flour does not contain gluten, so is suitable for people on a gluten-free diet. Rice may also be made into various types of noodles. Raw, wild, or brown rice may also be consumed by raw-foodist or fruitarians if soaked and sprouted (usually a week to 30 days – gaba rice). Processed rice seeds must be boiled or steamed before eating. Boiled rice may be further fried in cooking oil or butter (known as fried rice), or beaten in a tub to make mochi. Rice is a good source of protein and a staple food in many parts of the world, but it is not a complete protein: it does not contain all of the essential amino acids in sufficient amounts for good health, and should be combined with other sources of protein, such as nuts, seeds, beans, fish, or meat. Rice, like other cereal grains, can be puffed (or popped). This process takes advantage of the grains' water content and typically involves heating grains in a special chamber. Further puffing is sometimes accomplished by processing puffed pellets in a low-pressure chamber. The ideal gas law means either lowering the local pressure or raising the water temperature results in an increase in volume prior to water evaporation, resulting in a puffy texture. Bulk raw rice density is about 0.9 g/cm³. It decreases to less than one-tenth that when puffed. HARVESTING, DRYING AND MILLING Unmilled rice, known as paddy (Indonesia and Malaysia: padi; Philippines, palay), is usually harvested when the grains have a moisture content of around 25%. In most Asian countries, where rice is almost entirely the product of smallholder agriculture, harvesting is carried out manually, although there is a growing interest in mechanical harvesting. Harvesting can be carried out by the farmers themselves, but is also frequently done by seasonal labor groups. Harvesting is followed by threshing, either immediately or within a day or two. Again, much threshing is still carried out by hand but there is an increasing use of mechanical threshers. Subsequently, paddy needs to be dried to bring down the moisture content to no more than 20% for milling. A familiar sight in several Asian countries is paddy laid out to dry along roads. However, in most countries the bulk of drying of marketed paddy takes place in mills, with village-level drying being used for paddy to be consumed by farm families. Mills either sun dry or use mechanical driers or both. Drying has to be carried out quickly to avoid the formation of molds. Mills range from simple hullers, with a throughput of a couple of tonnes a day, that simply remove the outer husk, to enormous operations that can process 4,000 tonnes a day and produce highly polished rice. A good mill can achieve a paddy-to-rice conversion rate of up to 72% but smaller, inefficient mills often struggle to achieve 60%. These smaller mills often do not buy paddy and sell rice but only service farmers who want to mill their paddy for their own consumption. DISTRIBUTION Because of the importance of rice to human nutrition and food security in Asia, the domestic rice markets tend to be subject to considerable state involvement. While the private sector plays a leading role in most countries, agencies such as BULOG in Indonesia, the NFA in the Philippines, VINAFOOD in Vietnam and the Food Corporation of India are all heavily involved in purchasing of paddy from farmers or rice from mills and in distributing rice to poorer people. BULOG and NFA monopolise rice imports into their countries while VINAFOOD controls all exports from Vietnam. TRADE World trade figures are very different from those for production, as less than 8% of rice produced is traded internationally. In economic terms, the global rice trade was a small fraction of 1% of world mercantile trade. Many countries consider rice as a strategic food staple, and various governments subject its trade to a wide range of controls and interventions. Developing countries are the main players in the world rice trade, accounting for 83% of exports and 85% of imports. While there are numerous importers of rice, the exporters of rice are limited. Just five countries – Thailand, Vietnam, China, the United States and India – in decreasing order of exported quantities, accounted for about three-quarters of world rice exports in 2002. However, this ranking has been rapidly changing in recent years. In 2010, the three largest exporters of rice, in decreasing order of quantity exported were Thailand, Vietnam and India. By 2012, India became the largest exporter of rice with a 100% increase in its exports on year-to-year basis, and Thailand slipped to third position. Together, Thailand, Vietnam and India accounted for nearly 70% of the world rice exports. The primary variety exported by Thailand and Vietnam were Jasmine rice, while exports from India included aromatic Basmati variety. China, an exporter of rice in early 2000s, was a net importer of rice in 2010 and will become the largest net importer, surpassing Nigeria, in 2013. According to a USDA report, the world's largest exporters of rice in 2012 were India (9.75 million tonnes), Vietnam (7 million tonnes), Thailand (6.5 million tonnes), Pakistan (3.75 million tonnes) and the United States (3.5 million tonnes). Major importers usually include Nigeria, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Malaysia, the Philippines, Brazil and some African and Persian Gulf countries. In common with other West African countries, Nigeria is actively promoting domestic production. However, its very heavy import duties (110%) open it to smuggling from neighboring countries. Parboiled rice is particularly popular in Nigeria. Although China and India are the two largest producers of rice in the world, both countries consume the majority of the rice produced domestically, leaving little to be traded internationally. World's most productive rice farms and farmers The average world yield for rice was 4.3 tonnes per hectare, in 2010. Australian rice farms were the most productive in 2010, with a nationwide average of 10.8 tonnes per hectare. Yuan Longping of China National Hybrid Rice Research and Development Center, China, set a world record for rice yield in 2010 at 19 tonnes per hectare on a demonstration plot. In 2011, this record was surpassed by an Indian farmer, Sumant Kumar, with 22.4 tonnes per hectare in Bihar. Both these farmers claim to have employed newly developed rice breeds and System of Rice Intensification (SRI), a recent innovation in rice farming. SRI is claimed to have set new national records in rice yields, within the last 10 years, in many countries. The claimed Chinese and Indian yields have yet to be demonstrated on seven-hectare lots and to be reproducible over two consecutive years on the same farm. PRICE In late 2007 to May 2008, the price of grains rose greatly due to droughts in major producing countries (particularly Australia), increased use of grains for animal feed and US subsidies for bio-fuel production. Although there was no shortage of rice on world markets this general upward trend in grain prices led to panic buying by consumers, government rice export bans (in particular, by Vietnam and India) and inflated import orders by the Philippines marketing board, the National Food Authority. This caused significant rises in rice prices. In late April 2008, prices hit 24 US cents a pound, twice the price of seven months earlier. Over the period of 2007 to 2013, the Chinese government has substantially increased the price it pays domestic farmers for their rice, rising to US$500 per metric ton by 2013. The 2013 price of rice originating from other southeast Asian countries was a comparably low US$350 per metric ton.[88] On April 30, 2008, Thailand announced plans for the creation of the Organisation of Rice Exporting Countries (OREC) with the intention that this should develop into a price-fixing cartel for rice. However, little progress had been made by mid-2011 to achieve this. WORLDWIDE CONSUMPTION As of 2009 world food consumption of rice was 531.6 million metric tons of paddy equivalent (354,603 of milled equivalent), while the far largest consumers were China consuming 156.3 million metric tons of paddy equivalent (29.4% of the world consumption) and India consuming 123.5 million metric tons of paddy equivalent (23.3% of the world consumption). Between 1961 and 2002, per capita consumption of rice increased by 40%. Rice is the most important crop in Asia. In Cambodia, for example, 90% of the total agricultural area is used for rice production. U.S. rice consumption has risen sharply over the past 25 years, fueled in part by commercial applications such as beer production. Almost one in five adult Americans now report eating at least half a serving of white or brown rice per day. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS Rice cultivation on wetland rice fields is thought to be responsible for 11% of the anthropogenic methane emissions. Rice requires slightly more water to produce than other grains. Rice production uses almost a third of Earth’s fresh water. Long-term flooding of rice fields cuts the soil off from atmospheric oxygen and causes anaerobic fermentation of organic matter in the soil. Methane production from rice cultivation contributes ~1.5% of anthropogenic greenhouse gases. Methane is twenty times more potent a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide. A 2010 study found that, as a result of rising temperatures and decreasing solar radiation during the later years of the 20th century, the rice yield growth rate has decreased in many parts of Asia, compared to what would have been observed had the temperature and solar radiation trends not occurred. The yield growth rate had fallen 10–20% at some locations. The study was based on records from 227 farms in Thailand, Vietnam, Nepal, India, China, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. The mechanism of this falling yield was not clear, but might involve increased respiration during warm nights, which expends energy without being able to photosynthesize. RAINFALL TEMPERATURE Rice requires high temperature above 20 °C but not more than 35 to 40 °C. Optimum temperature is around 30 °C (Tmax) and 20 °C (Tmin). SOLAR RADIATION The amount of solar radiation received during 45 days after harvest determines final crop output. ATMOSPHERIC WATER VAPOR High water vapor content (in humid tropics) subjects unusual stress which favors the spread of fungal and bacterial diseases. WIND Light wind transports CO2 to the leaf canopy but strong wind cause severe damage and may lead to sterility (due to pollen dehydration, spikelet sterility, and abortive endosperms). PESTS AND DISEASES Rice pests are any organisms or microbes with the potential to reduce the yield or value of the rice crop (or of rice seeds). Rice pests include weeds, pathogens, insects, nematode, rodents, and birds. A variety of factors can contribute to pest outbreaks, including climatic factors, improper irrigation, the overuse of insecticides and high rates of nitrogen fertilizer application. Weather conditions also contribute to pest outbreaks. For example, rice gall midge and army worm outbreaks tend to follow periods of high rainfall early in the wet season, while thrips outbreaks are associated with drought. INSECTS Major rice insect pests include: the brown planthopper (BPH), several spp. of stemborers – including those in the genera Scirpophaga and Chilo, the rice gall midge, several spp. of rice bugs – notably in the genus Leptocorisa, the rice leafroller, rice weevils and the Chinese rice grasshopper. DISEASES Rice blast, caused by the fungus Magnaporthe grisea, is the most significant disease affecting rice cultivation. Other major rice diseases include: sheath blight, rice ragged stunt (vector: BPH), and tungro (vector: Nephotettix spp). There is also an ascomycete fungus, Cochliobolus miyabeanus, that causes brown spot disease in rice. NEMATODES Several nematode species infect rice crops, causing diseases such as Ufra (Ditylenchus dipsaci), White tip disease (Aphelenchoide bessei), and root knot disease (Meloidogyne graminicola). Some nematode species such as Pratylenchus spp. are most dangerous in upland rice of all parts of the world. Rice root nematode (Hirschmanniella oryzae) is a migratory endoparasite which on higher inoculum levels will lead to complete destruction of a rice crop. Beyond being obligate parasites, they also decrease the vigor of plants and increase the plants' susceptibility to other pests and diseases. OTHER PESTS These include the apple snail Pomacea canaliculata, panicle rice mite, rats, and the weed Echinochloa crusgali. INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT Crop protection scientists are trying to develop rice pest management techniques which are sustainable. In other words, to manage crop pests in such a manner that future crop production is not threatened. Sustainable pest management is based on four principles: biodiversity, host plant resistance (HPR), landscape ecology, and hierarchies in a landscape – from biological to social. At present, rice pest management includes cultural techniques, pest-resistant rice varieties, and pesticides (which include insecticide). Increasingly, there is evidence that farmers' pesticide applications are often unnecessary, and even facilitate pest outbreaks. By reducing the populations of natural enemies of rice pests, misuse of insecticides can actually lead to pest outbreaks. The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) demonstrated in 1993 that an 87.5% reduction in pesticide use can lead to an overall drop in pest numbers. IRRI also conducted two campaigns in 1994 and 2003, respectively, which discouraged insecticide misuse and smarter pest management in Vietnam. Rice plants produce their own chemical defenses to protect themselves from pest attacks. Some synthetic chemicals, such as the herbicide 2,4-D, cause the plant to increase the production of certain defensive chemicals and thereby increase the plant’s resistance to some types of pests. Conversely, other chemicals, such as the insecticide imidacloprid, can induce changes in the gene expression of the rice that cause the plant to become more susceptible to attacks by certain types of pests. 5-Alkylresorcinols are chemicals that can also be found in rice. Botanicals, so-called "natural pesticides", are used by some farmers in an attempt to control rice pests. Botanicals include extracts of leaves, or a mulch of the leaves themselves. Some upland rice farmers in Cambodia spread chopped leaves of the bitter bush (Chromolaena odorata) over the surface of fields after planting. This practice probably helps the soil retain moisture and thereby facilitates seed germination. Farmers also claim the leaves are a natural fertilizer and helps suppress weed and insect infestations. Among rice cultivars, there are differences in the responses to, and recovery from, pest damage. Many rice varieties have been selected for resistance to insect pests. Therefore, particular cultivars are recommended for areas prone to certain pest problems. The genetically based ability of a rice variety to withstand pest attacks is called resistance. Three main types of plant resistance to pests are recognized as nonpreference, antibiosis, and tolerance. Nonpreference (or antixenosis) describes host plants which insects prefer to avoid; antibiosis is where insect survival is reduced after the ingestion of host tissue; and tolerance is the capacity of a plant to produce high yield or retain high quality despite insect infestation. Over time, the use of pest-resistant rice varieties selects for pests that are able to overcome these mechanisms of resistance. When a rice variety is no longer able to resist pest infestations, resistance is said to have broken down. Rice varieties that can be widely grown for many years in the presence of pests and retain their ability to withstand the pests are said to have durable resistance. Mutants of popular rice varieties are regularly screened by plant breeders to discover new sources of durable resistance. PARASITIC WEEDS Rice is parasitized by the weed eudicot Striga hermonthica, which is of local importance for this crop. ECOTYPES AND CULTIVARS While most rice is bred for crop quality and productivity, there are varieties selected for characteristics such as texture, smell, and firmness. There are four major categories of rice worldwide: indica, japonica, aromatic and glutinous. The different varieties of rice are not considered interchangeable, either in food preparation or agriculture, so as a result, each major variety is a completely separate market from other varieties. It is common for one variety of rice to rise in price while another one drops in price. BIOTECHNOLOGY HIGH-YIELDING VARIETIES The high-yielding varieties are a group of crops created intentionally during the Green Revolution to increase global food production. This project enabled labor markets in Asia to shift away from agriculture, and into industrial sectors. The first "Rice Car", IR8 was produced in 1966 at the International Rice Research Institute which is based in the Philippines at the University of the Philippines' Los Baños site. IR8 was created through a cross between an Indonesian variety named "Peta" and a Chinese variety named "Dee Geo Woo Gen." Scientists have identified and cloned many genes involved in the gibberellin signaling pathway, including GAI1 (Gibberellin Insensitive) and SLR1 (Slender Rice). Disruption of gibberellin signaling can lead to significantly reduced stem growth leading to a dwarf phenotype. Photosynthetic investment in the stem is reduced dramatically as the shorter plants are inherently more stable mechanically. Assimilates become redirected to grain production, amplifying in particular the effect of chemical fertilizers on commercial yield. In the presence of nitrogen fertilizers, and intensive crop management, these varieties increase their yield two to three times. FUTURE POTENTIAL As the UN Millennium Development project seeks to spread global economic development to Africa, the "Green Revolution" is cited as the model for economic development. With the intent of replicating the successful Asian boom in agronomic productivity, groups like the Earth Institute are doing research on African agricultural systems, hoping to increase productivity. An important way this can happen is the production of "New Rices for Africa" (NERICA). These rices, selected to tolerate the low input and harsh growing conditions of African agriculture, are produced by the African Rice Center, and billed as technology "from Africa, for Africa". The NERICA have appeared in The New York Times (October 10, 2007) and International Herald Tribune (October 9, 2007), trumpeted as miracle crops that will dramatically increase rice yield in Africa and enable an economic resurgence. Ongoing research in China to develop perennial rice could result in enhanced sustainability and food security. Rice cultivars also fall into groups according to environmental conditions, season of planting, and season of harvest, called ecotypes. Some major groups are the Japan-type (grown in Japan), "buly" and "tjereh" types (Indonesia); "aman" (main winter crop), "aus" ("aush", summer), and "boro" (spring) (Bengal and Assam). Cultivars exist that are adapted to deep flooding, and these are generally called "floating rice". The largest collection of rice cultivars is at the International Rice Research Institute in the Philippines, with over 100,000 rice accessions held in the International Rice Genebank. Rice cultivars are often classified by their grain shapes and texture. For example, Thai Jasmine rice is long-grain and relatively less sticky, as some long-grain rice contains less amylopectin than short-grain cultivars. Chinese restaurants often serve long-grain as plain unseasoned steamed rice though short-grain rice is common as well. Japanese mochi rice and Chinese sticky rice are short-grain. Chinese people use sticky rice which is properly known as "glutinous rice" (note: glutinous refer to the glue-like characteristic of rice; does not refer to "gluten") to make zongzi. The Japanese table rice is a sticky, short-grain rice. Japanese sake rice is another kind as well. Indian rice cultivars include long-grained and aromatic Basmati (ਬਾਸਮਤੀ) (grown in the North), long and medium-grained Patna rice, and in South India (Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka) short-grained Sona Masuri (also called as Bangaru theegalu). In the state of Tamil Nadu, the most prized cultivar is ponni which is primarily grown in the delta regions of the Kaveri River. Kaveri is also referred to as ponni in the South and the name reflects the geographic region where it is grown. In the Western Indian state of Maharashtra, a short grain variety called Ambemohar is very popular. This rice has a characteristic fragrance of Mango blossom. Aromatic rices have definite aromas and flavors; the most noted cultivars are Thai fragrant rice, Basmati, Patna rice, Vietnamese fragrant rice, and a hybrid cultivar from America, sold under the trade name Texmati. Both Basmati and Texmati have a mild popcorn-like aroma and flavor. In Indonesia, there are also red and black cultivars. WIKIPEDIA

See more photos of this, and the Wikipedia article. Details, quoting from Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum | Lockheed P-38J-10-LO Lightning In the P-38 Lockheed engineer Clarence "Kelly" Johnson and his team of designers created one of the most successful twin-engine fighters ever flown by any nation. From 1942 to 1945, U. S. Army Air Forces pilots flew P-38s over Europe, the Mediterranean, and the Pacific, and from the frozen Aleutian Islands to the sun-baked deserts of North Africa. Lightning pilots in the Pacific theater downed more Japanese aircraft than pilots flying any other Allied warplane. Maj. Richard I. Bong, America's leading fighter ace, flew this P-38J-10-LO on April 16, 1945, at Wright Field, Ohio, to evaluate an experimental method of interconnecting the movement of the throttle and propeller control levers. However, his right engine exploded in flight before he could conduct the experiment. Transferred from the United States Air Force. Manufacturer: Lockheed Aircraft Company Date: 1943 Country of Origin: United States of America Dimensions: Overall: 390 x 1170cm, 6345kg, 1580cm (12ft 9 9/16in. x 38ft 4 5/8in., 13988.2lb., 51ft 10 1/16in.) Materials: All-metal Physical Description: Twin-tail boom and twin-engine fighter; tricycle landing gear. Long Description: From 1942 to 1945, the thunder of P-38 Lightnings was heard around the world. U. S. Army pilots flew the P-38 over Europe, the Mediterranean, and the Pacific; from the frozen Aleutian Islands to the sun-baked deserts of North Africa. Measured by success in combat, Lockheed engineer Clarence "Kelly" Johnson and a team of designers created the most successful twin-engine fighter ever flown by any nation. In the Pacific Theater, Lightning pilots downed more Japanese aircraft than pilots flying any other Army Air Forces warplane. Johnson and his team conceived this twin-engine, single-pilot fighter airplane in 1936 and the Army Air Corps authorized the firm to build it in June 1937. Lockheed finished constructing the prototype XP-38 and delivered it to the Air Corps on New Year's Day, 1939. Air Corps test pilot and P-38 project officer, Lt. Benjamin S. Kelsey, first flew the aircraft on January 27. Losing this prototype in a crash at Mitchel Field, New York, with Kelsey at the controls, did not deter the Air Corps from ordering 13 YP-38s for service testing on April 27. Kelsey survived the crash and remained an important part of the Lightning program. Before the airplane could be declared ready for combat, Lockheed had to block the effects of high-speed aerodynamic compressibility and tail buffeting, and solve other problems discovered during the service tests. The most vexing difficulty was the loss of control in a dive caused by aerodynamic compressibility. During late spring 1941, Air Corps Major Signa A. Gilke encountered serious trouble while diving his Lightning at high-speed from an altitude of 9,120 m (30,000 ft). When he reached an indicated airspeed of about 515 kph (320 mph), the airplane's tail began to shake violently and the nose dropped until the dive was almost vertical. Signa recovered and landed safely and the tail buffet problem was soon resolved after Lockheed installed new fillets to improve airflow where the cockpit gondola joined the wing center section. Seventeen months passed before engineers began to determine what caused the Lightning's nose to drop. They tested a scale model P-38 in the Ames Laboratory wind tunnel operated by the NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics) and found that shock waves formed when airflow over the wing leading edges reached transonic speeds. The nose drop and loss of control was never fully remedied but Lockheed installed dive recovery flaps under each wing in 1944. These devices slowed the P-38 enough to allow the pilot to maintain control when diving at high-speed. Just as the development of the North American P-51 Mustang, Republic P-47 Thunderbolt, and the Vought F4U Corsair (see NASM collection for these aircraft) pushed the limits of aircraft performance into unexplored territory, so too did P-38 development. The type of aircraft envisioned by the Lockheed design team and Air Corps strategists in 1937 did not appear until June 1944. This protracted shakedown period mirrors the tribulations suffered by Vought in sorting out the many technical problems that kept F4U Corsairs off U. S. Navy carrier decks until the end of 1944. Lockheed's efforts to trouble-shoot various problems with the design also delayed high-rate, mass production. When Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, the company had delivered only 69 Lightnings to the Army. Production steadily increased and at its peak in 1944, 22 sub-contractors built various Lightning components and shipped them to Burbank, California, for final assembly. Consolidated-Vultee (Convair) subcontracted to build the wing center section and the firm later became prime manufacturer for 2,000 P-38Ls but that company's Nashville plant completed only 113 examples of this Lightning model before war's end. Lockheed and Convair finished 10,038 P-38 aircraft including 500 photo-reconnaissance models. They built more L models, 3,923, than any other version. To ease control and improve stability, particularly at low speeds, Lockheed equipped all Lightnings, except a batch ordered by Britain, with propellers that counter-rotated. The propeller to the pilot's left turned counter-clockwise and the propeller to his right turned clockwise, so that one propeller countered the torque and airflow effects generated by the other. The airplane also performed well at high speeds and the definitive P-38L model could make better than 676 kph (420 mph) between 7,600 and 9,120 m (25,000 and 30,000 ft). The design was versatile enough to carry various combinations of bombs, air-to-ground rockets, and external fuel tanks. The multi-engine configuration reduced the Lightning loss-rate to anti-aircraft gunfire during ground attack missions. Single-engine airplanes equipped with power plants cooled by pressurized liquid, such as the North American P-51 Mustang (see NASM collection), were particularly vulnerable. Even a small nick in one coolant line could cause the engine to seize in a matter of minutes. The first P-38s to reach the Pacific combat theater arrived on April 4, 1942, when a version of the Lightning that carried reconnaissance cameras (designated the F-4), joined the 8th Photographic Squadron based in Australia. This unit launched the first P-38 combat missions over New Guinea and New Britain during April. By May 29, the first 25 P-38s had arrived in Anchorage, Alaska. On August 9, pilots of the 343rd Fighter Group, Eleventh Air Force, flying the P-38E, shot down a pair of Japanese flying boats. Back in the United States, Army Air Forces leaders tried to control a rumor that Lightnings killed their own pilots. On August 10, 1942, Col. Arthur I. Ennis, Chief of U. S. Army Air Forces Public Relations in Washington, told a fellow officer "… Here's what the 4th Fighter [training] Command is up against… common rumor out there that the whole West Coast was filled with headless bodies of men who jumped out of P-38s and had their heads cut off by the propellers." Novice Lightning pilots unfamiliar with the correct bailout procedures actually had more to fear from the twin-boom tail, if an emergency dictated taking to the parachute but properly executed, Lightning bailouts were as safe as parachuting from any other high-performance fighter of the day. Misinformation and wild speculation about many new aircraft was rampant during the early War period. Along with U. S. Navy Grumman F4F Wildcats (see NASM collection) and Curtiss P-40 Warhawks (see NASM collection), Lightnings were the first American fighter airplanes capable of consistently defeating Japanese fighter aircraft. On November 18, men of the 339th Fighter Squadron became the first Lightning pilots to attack Japanese fighters. Flying from Henderson Field on Guadalcanal, they claimed three during a mission to escort Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress bombers (see NASM collection). On April 18, 1943, fourteen P-38 pilots from the 70th and the 339th Fighter Squadrons, 347th Fighter Group, accomplished one of the most important Lightning missions of the war. American ULTRA cryptanalysts had decoded Japanese messages that revealed the timetable for a visit to the front by the commander of the Imperial Japanese Navy, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto. This charismatic leader had crafted the plan to attack Pearl Harbor and Allied strategists believed his loss would severely cripple Japanese morale. The P-38 pilots flew 700 km (435 miles) at heights from 3-15 m (10-50 feet) above the ocean to avoid detection. Over the coast of Bougainville, they intercepted a formation of two Mitsubishi G4M BETTY bombers (see NASM collection) carrying the Admiral and his staff, and six Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters (see NASM collection) providing escort. The Lightning pilots downed both bombers but lost Lt. Ray Hine to a Zero. In Europe, the first Americans to down a Luftwaffe aircraft were Lt. Elza E. Shahan flying a 27th Fighter Squadron P-38E, and Lt. J. K. Shaffer flying a Curtiss P-40 (see NASM collection) in the 33rd Fighter Squadron. The two flyers shared the destruction of a Focke-Wulf Fw 200C-3 Condor maritime strike aircraft over Iceland on August 14, 1942. Later that month, the 1st fighter group accepted Lightnings and began combat operations from bases in England but this unit soon moved to fight in North Africa. More than a year passed before the P-38 reappeared over Western Europe. While the Lightning was absent, U. S. Army Air Forces strategists had relearned a painful lesson: unescorted bombers cannot operate successfully in the face of determined opposition from enemy fighters. When P-38s returned to England, the primary mission had become long-range bomber escort at ranges of about 805 kms (500 miles) and at altitudes above 6,080 m (20,000 ft). On October 15, 1943, P-38H pilots in the 55th Fighter Group flew their first combat mission over Europe at a time when the need for long-range escorts was acute. Just the day before, German fighter pilots had destroyed 60 of 291 Eighth Air Force B-17 Flying Fortresses (see NASM collection) during a mission to bomb five ball-bearing plants at Schweinfurt, Germany. No air force could sustain a loss-rate of nearly 20 percent for more than a few missions but these targets lay well beyond the range of available escort fighters (Republic P-47 Thunderbolt, see NASM collection). American war planners hoped the long-range capabilities of the P-38 Lightning could halt this deadly trend, but the very high and very cold environment peculiar to the European air war caused severe power plant and cockpit heating difficulties for the Lightning pilots. The long-range escort problem was not completely solved until the North American P-51 Mustang (see NASM collection) began to arrive in large numbers early in 1944. Poor cockpit heating in the H and J model Lightnings made flying and fighting at altitudes that frequently approached 12,320 m (40,000 ft) nearly impossible. This was a fundamental design flaw that Kelly Johnson and his team never anticipated when they designed the airplane six years earlier. In his seminal work on the Allison V-1710 engine, Daniel Whitney analyzed in detail other factors that made the P-38 a disappointing airplane in combat over Western Europe. • Many new and inexperienced pilots arrived in England during December 1943, along with the new J model P-38 Lightning. • J model rated at 1,600 horsepower vs. 1,425 for earlier H model Lightnings. This power setting required better maintenance between flights. It appears this work was not done in many cases. • During stateside training, Lightning pilots were taught to fly at high rpm settings and low engine manifold pressure during cruise flight. This was very hard on the engines, and not in keeping with technical directives issued by Allison and Lockheed. • The quality of fuel in England may have been poor, TEL (tetraethyl lead) fuel additive appeared to condense inside engine induction manifolds, causing detonation (destructive explosion of fuel mixture rather than controlled burning). • Improved turbo supercharger intercoolers appeared on the J model P-38. These devices greatly reduced manifold temperatures but this encouraged TEL condensation in manifolds during cruise flight and increased spark plug fouling. Using water injection to minimize detonation might have reduced these engine problems. Both the Republic P-47 Thunderbolt and the North American P-51 Mustang (see NASM collection) were fitted with water injection systems but not the P-38. Lightning pilots continued to fly, despite these handicaps. During November 1942, two all-Lightning fighter groups, the 1st and the 14th, began operating in North Africa. In the Mediterranean Theater, P-38 pilots flew more sorties than Allied pilots flying any other type of fighter. They claimed 608 enemy a/c destroyed in the air, 123 probably destroyed and 343 damaged, against the loss of 131 Lightnings. In the war against Japan, the P-38 truly excelled. Combat rarely occurred above 6,080 m (20,000 ft) and the engine and cockpit comfort problems common in Europe never plagued pilots in the Pacific Theater. The Lightning's excellent range was used to full advantage above the vast expanses of water. In early 1945, Lightning pilots of the 12th Fighter Squadron, 18th Fighter Group, flew a mission that lasted 10 ½ hours and covered more than 3,220 km (2,000 miles). In August, P-38 pilots established the world's long-distance record for a World War II combat fighter when they flew from the Philippines to the Netherlands East Indies, a distance of 3,703 km (2,300 miles). During early 1944, Lightning pilots in the 475th Fighter Group began the 'race of aces.' By March, Lieutenant Colonel Thomas J. Lynch had scored 21 victories before he fell to antiaircraft gunfire while strafing enemy ships. Major Thomas B. McGuire downed 38 Japanese aircraft before he was killed when his P-38 crashed at low altitude in early January 1945. Major Richard I. Bong became America's highest scoring fighter ace (40 victories) but died in the crash of a Lockheed P-80 (see NASM collection) on August 6, 1945. Museum records show that Lockheed assigned the construction number 422-2273 to the National Air and Space Museum's P-38. The Army Air Forces accepted this Lightning as a P-38J-l0-LO on November 6, 1943, and the service identified the airplane with the serial number 42-67762. Recent investigations conducted by a team of specialists at the Paul E. Garber Facility, and Herb Brownstein, a volunteer in the Aeronautics Division at the National Air and Space Museum, have revealed many hitherto unknown aspects to the history of this aircraft. Brownstein examined NASM files and documents at the National Archives. He discovered that a few days after the Army Air Forces (AAF) accepted this airplane, the Engineering Division at Wright Field in Dayton, Ohio, granted Lockheed permission to convert this P-38 into a two-seat trainer. The firm added a seat behind the pilot to accommodate an instructor who would train civilian pilots in instrument flying techniques. Once trained, these test pilots evaluated new Lightnings fresh off the assembly line. In a teletype sent by the Engineering Division on March 2, 1944, Brownstein also discovered that this P-38 was released to Colonel Benjamin S. Kelsey from March 3 to April 10, 1944, to conduct special tests. This action was confirmed the following day in a cable from the War Department. This same pilot, then a Lieutenant, flew the XP-38 across the United States in 1939 and survived the crash that destroyed this Lightning at Mitchel Field, New York. In early 1944, Kelsey was assigned to the Eighth Air Force in England and he apparently traveled to the Lockheed factory at Burbank to pick up the P-38. Further information about these tests and Kelsey's involvement remain an intriguing question. One of Brownstein's most important discoveries was a small file rich with information about the NASM Lightning. This file contained a cryptic reference to a "Major Bong" who flew the NASM P-38 on April 16, 1945, at Wright Field. Bong had planned to fly for an hour to evaluate an experimental method of interconnecting the movement of the throttle and propeller control levers. His flight ended after twenty-minutes when "the right engine blew up before I had a chance [to conduct the test]." The curator at the Richard I. Bong Heritage Center confirmed that America's highest scoring ace made this flight in the NASM P-38 Lightning. Working in Building 10 at the Paul E. Garber Facility, Rob Mawhinney, Dave Wilson, Wil Lee, Bob Weihrauch, Jim Purton, and Heather Hutton spent several months during the spring and summer of 2001 carefully disassembling, inspecting, and cleaning the NASM Lightning. They found every hardware modification consistent with a model J-25 airplane, not the model J-10 painted in the data block beneath the artifact's left nose. This fact dovetails perfectly with knowledge uncovered by Brownstein. On April 10, the Engineering Division again cabled Lockheed asking the company to prepare 42-67762 for transfer to Wright Field "in standard configuration." The standard P-38 configuration at that time was the P-38J-25. The work took several weeks and the fighter does not appear on Wright Field records until May 15, 1944. On June 9, the Flight Test Section at Wright Field released the fighter for flight trials aimed at collecting pilot comments on how the airplane handled. Wright Field's Aeromedical Laboratory was the next organization involved with this P-38. That unit installed a kit on July 26 that probably measured the force required to move the control wheel left and right to actuate the power-boosted ailerons installed in all Lightnings beginning with version J-25. From August 12-16, the Power Plant Laboratory carried out tests to measure the hydraulic pump temperatures on this Lightning. Then beginning September 16 and lasting about ten days, the Bombing Branch, Armament Laboratory, tested type R-3 fragmentation bomb racks. The work appears to have ended early in December. On June 20, 1945, the AAF Aircraft Distribution Office asked that the Air Technical Service Command transfer the Lightning from Wright Field to Altus Air Force Base, Oklahoma, a temporary holding area for Air Force museum aircraft. The P-38 arrived at the Oklahoma City Air Depot on June 27, 1945, and mechanics prepared the fighter for flyable storage. Airplane Flight Reports for this Lightning also describe the following activities and movements: 6-21-45 Wright Field, Ohio, 5.15 hours of flying. 6-22-45Wright Field, Ohio, .35 minutes of flying by Lt. Col. Wendel [?] J. Kelley and P. Shannon. 6-25-45Altus, Oklahoma, .55 hours flown, pilot P. Shannon. 6-27-45Altus, Oklahoma, #2 engine changed, 1.05 hours flown by Air Corps F/O Ralph F. Coady. 10-5-45 OCATSC-GCAAF (Garden City Army Air Field, Garden City, Kansas), guns removed and ballast added. 10-8-45Adams Field, Little Rock, Arkansas. 10-9-45Nashville, Tennessee, 5-28-46Freeman Field, Indiana, maintenance check by Air Corps Capt. H. M. Chadhowere [sp]? 7-24-46Freeman Field, Indiana, 1 hour local flight by 1st Lt. Charles C. Heckel. 7-31-46 Freeman Field, Indiana, 4120th AAF Base Unit, ferry flight to Orchard Place [Illinois] by 1st Lt. Charles C. Heckel. On August 5, 1946, the AAF moved the aircraft to another storage site at the former Consolidated B-24 bomber assembly plant at Park Ridge, Illinois. A short time later, the AAF transferred custody of the Lightning and more than sixty other World War II-era airplanes to the Smithsonian National Air Museum. During the early 1950s, the Air Force moved these airplanes from Park Ridge to the Smithsonian storage site at Suitland, Maryland. • • • Quoting from Wikipedia | Lockheed P-38 Lightning: The Lockheed P-38 Lightning was a World War II American fighter aircraft built by Lockheed. Developed to a United States Army Air Corps requirement, the P-38 had distinctive twin booms and a single, central nacelle containing the cockpit and armament. Named "fork-tailed devil" by the Luftwaffe and "two planes, one pilot" by the Japanese, the P-38 was used in a number of roles, including dive bombing, level bombing, ground-attack, photo reconnaissance missions, and extensively as a long-range escort fighter when equipped with drop tanks under its wings. The P-38 was used most successfully in the Pacific Theater of Operations and the China-Burma-India Theater of Operations as the mount of America's top aces, Richard Bong (40 victories) and Thomas McGuire (38 victories). In the South West Pacific theater, the P-38 was the primary long-range fighter of United States Army Air Forces until the appearance of large numbers of P-51D Mustangs toward the end of the war. The P-38 was unusually quiet for a fighter, the exhaust muffled by the turbo-superchargers. It was extremely forgiving, and could be mishandled in many ways, but the rate of roll was too slow for it to excel as a dogfighter. The P-38 was the only American fighter aircraft in production throughout American involvement in the war, from Pearl Harbor to Victory over Japan Day. Variants: Lightning in maturity: P-38J The P-38J was introduced in August 1943. The turbo-supercharger intercooler system on previous variants had been housed in the leading edges of the wings and had proven vulnerable to combat damage and could burst if the wrong series of controls were mistakenly activated. In the P-38J model, the streamlined engine nacelles of previous Lightnings were changed to fit the intercooler radiator between the oil coolers, forming a "chin" that visually distinguished the J model from its predecessors. While the P-38J used the same V-1710-89/91 engines as the H model, the new core-type intercooler more efficiently lowered intake manifold temperatures and permitted a substantial increase in rated power. The leading edge of the outer wing was fitted with 55 gal (208 l) fuel tanks, filling the space formerly occupied by intercooler tunnels, but these were omitted on early P-38J blocks due to limited availability. The final 210 J models, designated P-38J-25-LO, alleviated the compressibility problem through the addition of a set of electrically-actuated dive recovery flaps just outboard of the engines on the bottom centerline of the wings. With these improvements, a USAAF pilot reported a dive speed of almost 600 mph (970 km/h), although the indicated air speed was later corrected for compressibility error, and the actual dive speed was lower. Lockheed manufactured over 200 retrofit modification kits to be installed on P-38J-10-LO and J-20-LO already in Europe, but the USAAF C-54 carrying them was shot down by an RAF pilot who mistook the Douglas transport for a German Focke-Wulf Condor. Unfortunately the loss of the kits came during Lockheed test pilot Tony LeVier's four-month morale-boosting tour of P-38 bases. Flying a new Lightning named "Snafuperman" modified to full P-38J-25-LO specs at Lockheed's modification center near Belfast, LeVier captured the pilots' full attention by routinely performing maneuvers during March 1944 that common Eighth Air Force wisdom held to be suicidal. It proved too little too late because the decision had already been made to re-equip with Mustangs. The P-38J-25-LO production block also introduced hydraulically-boosted ailerons, one of the first times such a system was fitted to a fighter. This significantly improved the Lightning's rate of roll and reduced control forces for the pilot. This production block and the following P-38L model are considered the definitive Lightnings, and Lockheed ramped up production, working with subcontractors across the country to produce hundreds of Lightnings each month. Noted P-38 pilots Richard Bong and Thomas McGuire The American ace of aces and his closest competitor both flew Lightnings as they tallied 40 and 38 victories respectively. Majors Richard I. "Dick" Bong and Thomas J. "Tommy" McGuire of the USAAF competed for the top position. Both men were awarded the Medal of Honor. McGuire was killed in air combat in January 1945 over the Philippines, after racking up 38 confirmed kills, making him the second-ranking American ace. Bong was rotated back to the United States as America's ace of aces, after making 40 kills, becoming a test pilot. He was killed on 6 August 1945, the day the atomic bomb was dropped on Japan, when his P-80 Shooting Star jet fighter flamed out on takeoff. Charles Lindbergh The famed aviator Charles Lindbergh toured the South Pacific as a civilian contractor for United Aircraft Corporation, comparing and evaluating performance of single- and twin-engined fighters for Vought. He worked to improve range and load limits of the F4U Corsair, flying both routine and combat strafing missions in Corsairs alongside Marine pilots. In Hollandia, he attached himself to the 475th FG flying P-38s so that he could investigate the twin-engine fighter. Though new to the machine, he was instrumental in extending the range of the P-38 through improved throttle settings, or engine-leaning techniques, notably by reducing engine speed to 1,600 rpm, setting the carburetors for auto-lean and flying at 185 mph (298 km/h) indicated airspeed which reduced fuel consumption to 70 gal/h, about 2.6 mpg. This combination of settings had been considered dangerous; it was thought it would upset the fuel mixture and cause an explosion. Everywhere Lindbergh went in the South Pacific, he was accorded the normal preferential treatment of a visiting colonel, though he had resigned his Air Corps Reserve colonel's commission three years before. While with the 475th, he held training classes and took part in a number of Army Air Corps combat missions. On 28 July 1944, Lindbergh shot down a Mitsubishi Ki-51 "Sonia" flown expertly by the veteran commander of 73rd Independent Flying Chutai, Imperial Japanese Army Captain Saburo Shimada. In an extended, twisting dogfight in which many of the participants ran out of ammunition, Shimada turned his aircraft directly toward Lindbergh who was just approaching the combat area. Lindbergh fired in a defensive reaction brought on by Shimada's apparent head-on ramming attack. Hit by cannon and machine gun fire, the "Sonia's" propeller visibly slowed, but Shimada held his course. Lindbergh pulled up at the last moment to avoid collision as the damaged "Sonia" went into a steep dive, hit the ocean and sank. Lindbergh's wingman, ace Joseph E. "Fishkiller" Miller, Jr., had also scored hits on the "Sonia" after it had begun its fatal dive, but Miller was certain the kill credit was Lindbergh's. The unofficial kill was not entered in the 475th's war record. On 12 August 1944 Lindbergh left Hollandia to return to the United States. Charles MacDonald The seventh-ranking American ace, Charles H. MacDonald, flew a Lightning against the Japanese, scoring 27 kills in his famous aircraft, the Putt Putt Maru. Robin Olds Main article: Robin Olds Robin Olds was the last P-38 ace in the Eighth Air Force and the last in the ETO. Flying a P-38J, he downed five German fighters on two separate missions over France and Germany. He subsequently transitioned to P-51s to make seven more kills. After World War II, he flew F-4 Phantom IIs in Vietnam, ending his career as brigadier general with 16 kills. Clay Tice A P-38 piloted by Clay Tice was the first American aircraft to land in Japan after VJ-Day, when he and his wingman set down on Nitagahara because his wingman was low on fuel. Antoine de Saint-Exupéry Noted aviation pioneer and writer Antoine de Saint-Exupéry vanished in a F-5B-1-LO, 42-68223, c/n 2734, of Groupe de Chasse II/33, out of Borgo-Porreta, Bastia, Corsica, a reconnaissance variant of the P-38, while on a flight over the Mediterranean, from Corsica to mainland France, on 31 July 1944. His health, both physical and mental (he was said to be intermittently subject to depression), had been deteriorating and there had been talk of taking him off flight status. There have been suggestions (although no proof to date) that this was a suicide rather than an aircraft failure or combat loss. In 2000, a French scuba diver found the wreckage of a Lightning in the Mediterranean off the coast of Marseille, and it was confirmed in April 2004 as Saint-Exupéry's F-5B. No evidence of air combat was found. In March 2008, a former Luftwaffe pilot, Horst Rippert from Jagdgruppe 200, claimed to have shot down Saint-Exupéry. Adrian Warburton The RAF's legendary photo-recon "ace", Wing Commander Adrian Warburton DSO DFC, was the pilot of a Lockheed P-38 borrowed from the USAAF that took off on 12 April 1944 to photograph targets in Germany. W/C Warburton failed to arrive at the rendezvous point and was never seen again. In 2003, his remains were recovered in Germany from his wrecked USAAF P-38 Lightning. • • • • • Quoting Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum | Boeing B-29 Superfortress "Enola Gay": Boeing's B-29 Superfortress was the most sophisticated propeller-driven bomber of World War II and the first bomber to house its crew in pressurized compartments. Although designed to fight in the European theater, the B-29 found its niche on the other side of the globe. In the Pacific, B-29s delivered a variety of aerial weapons: conventional bombs, incendiary bombs, mines, and two nuclear weapons. On August 6, 1945, this Martin-built B-29-45-MO dropped the first atomic weapon used in combat on Hiroshima, Japan. Three days later, Bockscar (on display at the U.S. Air Force Museum near Dayton, Ohio) dropped a second atomic bomb on Nagasaki, Japan. Enola Gay flew as the advance weather reconnaissance aircraft that day. A third B-29, The Great Artiste, flew as an observation aircraft on both missions. Transferred from the United States Air Force. Manufacturer: Boeing Aircraft Co. Martin Co., Omaha, Nebr. Date: 1945 Country of Origin: United States of America Dimensions: Overall: 900 x 3020cm, 32580kg, 4300cm (29ft 6 5/16in. x 99ft 1in., 71825.9lb., 141ft 15/16in.) Materials: Polished overall aluminum finish Physical Description: Four-engine heavy bomber with semi-monoqoque fuselage and high-aspect ratio wings. Polished aluminum finish overall, standard late-World War II Army Air Forces insignia on wings and aft fuselage and serial number on vertical fin; 509th Composite Group markings painted in black; "Enola Gay" in black, block letters on lower left nose.

officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic, is a landlocked country in Southeast Asia, bordered by Burma and People's Republic of China to the northwest, Vietnam to the east, Cambodia to the south and Thailand to the west. Laos traces its history to the Kingdom of Lan Xang or Land of a Million Elephants, which existed from the 14th to the 18th century. After a period as a French protectorate, it gained independence in 1949. A long civil war ended officially when the Communist Pathet Lao movement came to power in 1975, but the protesting between factions continued for several years. Forty-four percent of the population lived below the international poverty line of the equivalent of US$1.25 a day according to data from 2006, though the CIA World Factbook currently places this figure at 26%. History en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Laos Geography en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Laos Other info Oficial Name: ສາທາລະນະລັດປະຊາທິປະໄຕປະຊາຊົນລາວ Shathalanat Paxathipatai Paxaxôn Lao Lao People's Democratic Republic Independence: 19 July 1949 Area: 236.800km2 Inhabitants: 5.789.000 Language: Aheu [thm] 1,770 in Laos (2000). Pak Sane Province, Khamkeut District, near Lak Sao. Alternate names: Kha Tong Luang, Thavung, Phon Soung, Phonsung, So. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Viet-Muong, Thavung More information. Akha [ahk] 58,000 in Laos (1995 Nguyen Duy Thieu). Luang Namtha, Phongsali provinces. Alternate names: Kaw, Ekaw, Ko, Aka, Ikaw, Ak'a, Ahka, Khako, Hka Ko, Khao Kha Ko, Ikor, Aini, Yani. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Loloish, Southern, Akha, Hani, Ha-Ya More information. Alak [alk] 4,000 (2000 Bradley). Southern Laos, mainly in Saravan and Sekong provinces. Alternate names: Hrlak. Dialects: Included under Bahnaric as closest to Bahnar, Tampuan, Lamam. Also included under Katuic. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, Central Bahnaric More information. Arem [aem] 20 in Laos. Ethnic population: 500 (1995). West central, both sides of the Viet Nam-Laos border, west of Phuc Trach. Alternate names: Chomrau, Chombrau, Umo. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Viet-Muong, Chut Nearly extinct. More information. Bit [bgk] 1,530 in Laos (1985 Proschan). Population total all countries: 2,030. Near the northern border with China, northeast of Namtha, Luang Namtha Province, and south of Boun Neua; Phongsali Province, Boun-Tai, Samphan, and Khoa districts, 8 villages. Also spoken in China. Alternate names: Khabit, Khbit, Phsing, Phsin. Dialects: Not Khmuic, but Palaungic (J-O Svantesson 1990). Related to Khao in Viet Nam. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Khmuic, Khao More information. Bo [bgl] 2,950 (2000). Central Laos inland from the bend of the Mekong, Nhang River, around Nape, Kammouan Province and Lak Sao, Bolikhamxay Province, Hinboun District. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Viet-Muong, Muong More information. Bru, Eastern [bru] 69,000 in Laos (1999). Population total all countries: 129,559. Eastern Savannehkhet Province, Sepone District. Also spoken in Thailand, Viet Nam. Dialects: Tri (So Tri, So Trii, Chali). It is partially intelligible with Western Bru of Thailand. Related to Khua. Mangkong in Viet Nam and eastern Laos is a dialect of Eastern Bru, different linguistically from the Mangkong that are the same as So of Thailand. Mangkong is an ethnic group. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, West Katuic, Brou-So More information. Chut [scb] 450 in Laos (1995 census). Khammouan Province, Bouarapha District, near the Viet Nam border at about the latitude of the Mu Gia Pass. Alternate names: May, Ruc, Sach, Salang. Dialects: May, Ruc. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Viet-Muong, Chut More information. Con [cno] 1,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Luang Namtha Province, southwest of Vieng Pou Kha. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Western Palaungic, Lametic More information. Halang Doan [hld] 2,346 in Laos (2000). Attopeu Province, Kasseng Plateau, Sanxai District, on the left banks of the Kamane and Dak Robay rivers, near the Viet Nam border. Alternate names: Halang Duan, Duan, Doan. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, North Bahnaric, West, Duan More information. Hani [hni] 1,122 in Laos (1995). Phongsali Province, along the Yunnan border. None in Thailand. Alternate names: Hanhi, Haw. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Loloish, Southern, Akha, Hani, Ha-Ya More information. Hmong Daw [mww] 169,800 in Laos (1995 census). Northern Laos. Alternate names: White Meo, White Miao, Meo Kao, White Lum, Bai Miao. Dialects: Hmong Gu Mba (Hmong Qua Mba, Striped Hmong), Mong Leng. Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Chuanqiandian More information. Hmong Njua [blu] 145,600 in Laos (1995). Northern Laos. Alternate names: Blue Meo, Blue Miao, Tak Meo, Hmong Njwa, Hmong Leng, Miao, Meo. Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Chuanqiandian More information. Hung [hnu] 2,000 in Laos (1996 Ferlus). Population total all countries: 2,700 to 3,700. Bolikhamsay, Khammouan provinces. The Toum live northeast of Nape and south of the Phong. Also spoken in Viet Nam. Dialects: Toum (Tum), Phong (Pong, Poong, Pong 1, Pong 2). Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Viet-Muong, Cuoi More information. Ir [irr] 4,420 (2000). Saravan Province, east of Saravan town. Alternate names: In, Yir. Dialects: Closest to Ong. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, Central Katuic, Ta'oih More information. Iu Mien [ium] 20,250 in Laos (2000). Alternate names: Mien, Man, Yao, Myen, Highland Yao. Classification: Hmong-Mien, Mienic, Mian-Jin More information. Jeh [jeh] 8,013 in Laos (1995 census). Southern Laos, Xekong Province, Dakchung District; Attopeu Province, Sanxai District, basin of Poko, Kamane, and Dak Main rivers. Alternate names: Die, Yeh, Gie. Dialects: Jeh Bri La, Jeh Mang Ram. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, North Bahnaric, West, Jeh-Halang More information. Jeng [jeg] 7,320 (2000). Attopeu Province, Samakkhixai and Sanamxai districts, 6 villages north of Attopeu town. Alternate names: Cheng, Chiengceng. Dialects: Related to Oy, Sapuan, Sok. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, West Bahnaric, Oi-The More information. Kado [kdv] 225 in Laos (2000). Phongsali Province. Alternate names: Kadu, Katu, Asak, Sak, Gadu, Thet. Dialects: Kadu, Ganaan (Ganan), Andro, Sengmai, Chakpa, Phayeng. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Jingpho-Konyak-Bodo, Jingpho-Luish, Luish More information. Kaduo [ktp] 5,000 in Laos (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Population total all countries: 10,292. North central on the China border, north of Mong Ou Tay. Also spoken in China. Alternate names: Gazhuo. Dialects: No information on intelligibility of other Lolo languages. No significant dialect differences. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Loloish, Southern, Akha, Hani, Bi-Ka More information. Kang [kyp] 47,636 in Laos (1995 census). Population total all countries: 81,701. Houaphan Province, Xam-Tai District; Xiangkhoang Province, Nonghet District. Also spoken in China. Alternate names: Tai Khang. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Kam-Sui More information. Kasseng [kgc] 1,200 (2000 D. Bradley). Ethnic population: 6,000 (2000). Southern Laos near Viet Nam border, Boloven Plateau area north of Attopeu, and between the Jeh, Alak, Laven, and Tareng peoples. Alternate names: Koseng, Kaseng, Kraseng. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, East Katuic, Kaseng More information. Kataang [kgd] 107,350 (2000). Southern Laos near the Ta'oih and Bru people, around Muong Nong, in Saravan, Savannakhet, Sekong, and Champassak provinces, around Toumlahn District, 2 villages in Khong Chiem, Ubon Ratachatani District, Thailand. Alternate names: Katang. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, Central Katuic, Ta'oih More information. Katu, Western [kuf] 14,700 (1998). Upper Xe Kong River, high basin of Song Boung River watershed along the Vietnamese border, Sekong, Saravan, and Champassak provinces. Dialects: A different language variety and orthography from Viet Nam. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, East Katuic, Katu-Pacoh More information. Khlor [llo] 6,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Saravan Province, Laongam District, south of Ir and Ong. Alternate names: Klor, Lor. Dialects: Closest to Ngeq. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, East Katuic, Ngeq-Nkriang More information. Khmu [kjg] 389,694 in Laos (1985 F. Proschan). Population total all countries: 479,739. Scattered through northern Laos. Also spoken in China, France, Myanmar, Thailand, USA, Viet Nam. Alternate names: Kmhmu, Khmu', Khamu, Kamu, Kammu, Khamuk, Kamhmu, Khomu, Mou, Pouteng, Pu Thenh, Tenh, Theng, Lao Terng. Dialects: Yuan, Khroong (Krong), Luang Prabang, Sayabury, Lyy, Rok, U, Hat. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Khmuic, Mal-Khmu', Khmu' More information. Khua [xhv] 2,000 in Laos (1981). Khammouan Province, Bouarapha District, northwest of Boualapha. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, West Katuic, Brou-So More information. Khuen [khf] 8,000 in Laos (1995 Chazee). Population total all countries: 9,000. Luang Namtha Province, Nale, Sing, and Viangphoukha districts. Near the Lamet people. Also spoken in China, USA. Alternate names: Kween, Khween, Khouen. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Khmuic, Mal-Khmu', Khmu' More information. Kim Mun [mji] 4,500 in Laos (1995 Chazee). Northwestern Laos, Luang Namtha Province, Long, Namtha districts; Huay Sai Province; Nam Moh District, Udom Sai Province, Nam Moh District; Bokeo Province. Alternate names: Mun, Lan Tin, Lanten, Man Lan-Tien, Lowland Yao, Jim Mun. Classification: Hmong-Mien, Mienic, Mian-Jin More information. Kiorr [xko] 2,359 in Laos (1985 F. Proschan). Louang Nam Tha and Bokeo provinces, 6 villages. Also spoken in Myanmar. Alternate names: Saamtaav, Samtao, Samtao 2, Con, Col. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Western Palaungic, Angkuic More information. Kuan [uan] 2,500 (1995 census). Bolikhamxay Province, Viangthong District, near the Mouan River. Dialects: Some classification problems, possibly because of migration. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Unclassified More information. Kuy [kdt] 51,180 in Laos (2000). 80% monolingual. Savannakhet, Saravan, Sedone provinces. A large group on both sides of the Mekong in southern Laos. Alternate names: Sui, Suai, Suay, Suoi, Soai, Suei, Aouei, Kuoy, Kui, Dui, Khamen-Boran, Old Khmer, Cuoi. Dialects: Antra, Na Nhyang. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, West Katuic, Kuay-Nheu More information. Lahu [lhu] 8,702 in Laos (1995 census). Bokeo Province, Peung, Tonpheung, Houayxay districts. Alternate names: Museu, Mussuh, Muhso, Musso. Dialects: Na (Black Lahu, Musser Dam, Northern Lahu, Loheirn), Nyi (Red Lahu, Southern Lahu, Musseh Daeng, Luhishi, Luhushi), Shehleh. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Loloish, Southern, Akha, Lahu More information. Lahu Shi [kds] 3,240 in Laos (2000). Population total all countries: 40,240. Bokeo Province, Kentung District. Also spoken in China, Myanmar, Thailand, USA, Viet Nam. Alternate names: Kutsung, Kucong, Yellow Lahu, Shi, Kui, Kwi. Dialects: Difficult intelligibility of Black Lahu. A distinct language from Nyi (Red Lahu). Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Loloish, Southern, Akha, Lahu More information. Lamet [lbn] 16,740 in Laos (1995 census). Population total all countries: 16,864. Northwestern Laos, Luang Namtha, Bokeo provinces. Also spoken in Thailand, USA. Alternate names: Lemet, Kha Lamet, Khamet, Khamed, Rmeet. Dialects: Upper Lamet, Lower Lamet. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Western Palaungic, Lametic More information. Lao [lao] 3,000,000 in Laos (1991 UBS). Population total all countries: 3,188,577. Mekong River Valley from Luang Prabang south to the Cambodian border. The Lao Kao went to Thailand and are in Nan, Loei, Saraburi, and elsewhere; the Lao-Khrang are in the Nakhonsawan and Nakhon Pathom area. May also be in Viet Nam. Also spoken in Australia, Cambodia, Canada, France, Thailand, USA. Alternate names: Laotian Tai, Laotian, Phou Lao, Eastern Thai, Lum Lao, Lao Wiang, Lao Kao, Rong Kong, Tai Lao, Lao-Tai, Là o, Lao-Lum, Lao-Noi. Dialects: Luang Prabang, Vientiane (Wiang Jan), Savannakhet (Suwannakhet), Pakse, Lao-Kao, Lao-Khrang. Dialect cluster with Northeastern Tai of Thailand. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern, Lao-Phutai More information. Laos Sign Language [lso] Dialects: Related to sign languages in Viet Nam and earlier ones in Thailand. Classification: Deaf sign language More information. Lave [brb] 12,750 in Laos (1984). Population total all countries: 18,444. Attopeu Province, Laos-Cambodian border. Also spoken in Cambodia, France, USA, Viet Nam. Alternate names: Brao, Braou, Brau, Proue, Brou, Love, Laveh, Rawe. Dialects: Palau. Close to Krung 2, Kravet, Sou. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, West Bahnaric, Brao-Kravet More information. Laven [lbo] 40,519 in Laos (1995 census). Southwestern Laos, Champassak, Attopeu provinces, Boloven Plateau, near the Alak. Also spoken in USA. Alternate names: Loven, Boloven, Boriwen, Laweenjru, Jaru, Jru', Jruq. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, West Bahnaric, Laven More information. Lü [khb] 134,100 in Laos (2000). Western Phongsali, Luang Namtha, Bokeo, Udomxay, Xanyabouli, Luang Prabang provinces. Alternate names: Lue, Lu, Pai-I, Shui-Pai-I. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern, Northwest More information. Mal [mlf] 23,193 in Laos (1995 census). Population total all countries: 26,193. Xaignabouli Province, Phiang District, west of the Mekong River. Also spoken in Thailand, USA. Alternate names: Khatin, T'in, Htin, Thin, Tin. Dialects: Not intelligible with Lua, Phai, or Pray 3. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Khmuic, Mal-Khmu', Mal-Phrai More information. Maleng [pkt] 800 in Laos (1996 Ferlus). Population total all countries: 1,000. Khammouan Province, Nakay District, Nam Theun Valley, near the banks of the Theun River. Also spoken in Viet Nam. Alternate names: Malieng, Malang. Dialects: Maleng, Pakatan (Kha Pakatan), Malang, Hareme. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Viet-Muong, Chut More information. Mlabri [mra] 24 in Laos (1985 F. Proschan). Xaignabouli Province, Phiang District, near Thailand border. Alternate names: Mla, Mla-Bri, Mabri, Mrabri, Yumbri, Ma Ku, Yellow Leaf. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Khmuic, Mlabri More information. Ngeq [ngt] 12,189 (1995 census). 70% monolingual. Southern Laos, Sekong, Saravan, Champassak provinces, 25 villages. Alternate names: Ngeh, Nge', Ngae, Kriang, Nkriang. Dialects: Closest to Khlor. Related to Alak 2. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, East Katuic, Ngeq-Nkriang More information. Nung [nut] A few in Laos. Alternate names: Nong. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Central More information. Nyaheun [nev] 5,152 (1995 census). Eastern part of Boloven Plateau near Sekong and Paksong. Alternate names: Nha Heun, Nyah Heuny, Hoen, Nia Hoen, Hun, Hin, Niahon, Nyahön, Yaheun. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, West Bahnaric, Nyaheun More information. O'du [tyh] 194 in Laos (1996 F. Proschan). Xiang Khoang Province, Nonghet District. Alternate names: O Du, Iduh, 'Iduh, "Tay Hat", "Hat", "Haat". Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Khmuic, Mal-Khmu', Khmu' More information. Ong [oog] 10,300 (2000). Saravan Province, north of Saravan town. Alternate names: Tong, Hantong. Dialects: Closest to Ir. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, Central Katuic, Ta'oih More information. Oy [oyb] 14,947 (1995 census). 80% monolingual. Attopeu Province, at the foot of the Bolaven Plateau near Pakse. Alternate names: Huei, Oi. Dialects: Riyao, Tamal Euy, Inn Tea, Kranyeu. Related to Jeng, Sapuan, Sok, The. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, West Bahnaric, Oi-The More information. Pacoh [pac] 13,224 in Laos (1995 census). 70% monolingual. Saravan Province, Samouay District; Savannakhet Province, Nong District. Alternate names: Bo River Van Kieu, Pokoh. Dialects: Pahi. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, East Katuic, Katu-Pacoh More information. Phai [prt] 15,000 in Laos (1995 census). Phongsali Province, Boun-Tai, Boun-Nua, Phongsali, Samphan districts; Xaignabouli Province, Hongsa, Xaignabouli, Phiang districts. Alternate names: Thung Chan Pray, Phay, Kha Pray, Pray 1, Prai. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Khmuic, Mal-Khmu', Mal-Phrai More information. Phana' [phq] 350 (1995 census). Luang Namtha Province, Luang Namtha District, Bopiet and Namtoung villages; Bokeo Province, Houayxay District, one village. Alternate names: Pana', Bana'. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Loloish, Southern, Akha More information. Phong-Kniang [pnx] 1,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Southern Houaphan Province, Viangthong and Houamuang districts, near the Neun River; northern Xieng Khouang Province. Alternate names: Pong 3, Khaniang, Kenieng, Keneng, Lao Phong. Dialects: Related to Puoc and Khang. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Khmuic, Xinh Mul More information. Phu Thai [pht] 154,400 in Laos (2001 Johnstone and Mandryk). Khammouan, Savannakhet, Saravan, Champassak provinces; some found in Oudomxai and Luang Prabang provinces. Alternate names: Putai, Phutai, Puthay. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern, Lao-Phutai More information. Phuan [phu] 106,099 in Laos (2000 WCD). Bolikhamxai, Vientiane, Xiangkhoang, and Houaphan. Alternate names: Lao Phuan, Phu Un. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern, East Central, Chiang Saeng More information. Phunoi [pho] 35,635 in Laos (1995 census). North central, around Phony Saly. Also spoken in Thailand. Alternate names: Phounoy, Phu Noi, Punoi. Dialects: Black Khoany, White Khoany, Mung, Hwethom, Khaskhong. Close to Bisu, Pyen, and Mpi. Those listed as dialects may be separate languages. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Loloish, Southern, Phunoi More information. Pu Ko [puk] 2 villages. Alternate names: Poko. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern More information. Puoc [puo] 2,164 in Laos (1985 F. Proschan). Northeast, Houaphan Province, Xiangkho District; Xieng Khouang Province, Het River, along the Viet Nam border. Alternate names: Kha Puhoc, Puhoc, Puok, Pou Hok, Xinh Mul, Xin Mul, Xing Mun, Ksing Mul, Lao Muh, Kha Niang. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Khmuic, Xinh Mul More information. Rien [rie] 5,279 (2000 WCD). Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai More information. Saek [skb] 14,000 in Laos (1990 Diller). Population total all countries: 25,000. Central Laos near the Viet Nam border. Upper Nam Noy and Nam Pheo areas in Khammouan Province and the village of Na Kadok in Khamkeut District, Borikhamxay Province. Also spoken in Thailand. Alternate names: Sek, Tai Sek, Set. Dialects: Na Kadok, Khammouan. Close to Tai Mène. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Sek More information. Salang [hal] 4,000 in Laos. Southern Laos, Attopeu Province. Alternate names: Halang. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, North Bahnaric, West, Jeh-Halang More information. Sapuan [spu] 2,400 (1981). Southern Laos, Attopeu Province, banks of the Se Kong and Se Kamane rivers. Alternate names: Sapouan. Dialects: Related to Oy, Sok, Jeng. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, West Bahnaric, Oi-The More information. Sila [slt] 1,772 in Laos (1995 census). Population total all countries: 2,612. North central, north of Muong Hai. Also spoken in Viet Nam. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Loloish, Southern, Akha, Hani More information. Sô [sss] 102,000 in Laos (1993). Population total all countries: 160,000. Khammouan, Thakhek, Savannakhet provinces, both sides of the Mekong River. Also spoken in Thailand. Alternate names: Mangkong, Mang-Koong, Makong, So Makon, Mankoong, Mang Cong, Bru, Kah So, Thro. Dialects: So Trong, So Slouy, So Phong. Close to Bru. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, West Katuic, Brou-So More information. Sok [skk] 1,600 (1981). Attopeu Province. Alternate names: Sork, Sawk. Dialects: Related to Oy, Sapuan, Jeng. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, West Bahnaric, Oi-The More information. Sou [sqq] 2,360 (2000). Southern Laos, Attopeu Province, Phouvong and Sanamxai districts. Alternate names: Suq, Souk, Su, Su', Sawk. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, West Bahnaric, Brao-Kravet More information. Tai Daeng [tyr] 25,000 in Laos (1991). Northeastern Laos, near the Viet Nam border. Alternate names: Red Thai, Thai Do, Thai Dang, Tai Deng, Daeng. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern, East Central, Chiang Saeng More information. Tai Dam [blt] 50,000 in Laos (1995). Khammouan Province. Alternate names: Black Tai, Tai Noir, Thai Den. Dialects: Tai Muoi (Tai Muei, Tay Mueai, Meuay). Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern, East Central, Chiang Saeng More information. Tai Dón [twh] 200,000 in Laos (1995 census). Northeastern Laos. Alternate names: Tai Blanc, Thái Tráng, Tai Lai, Tai Kao, White Tai. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern, East Central, Chiang Saeng More information. Tai Loi [tlq] 500 in Laos (1995 census). Luang Namtha Province, Long District. Tai Loi is across the border in Myanmar. Tai Loi may also be in China. Alternate names: Loi, Tailoi, Wakut, Monglwe. Dialects: Tai Loi, Doi. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Western Palaungic, Angkuic More information. Tai Long [thi] 4,800 (2004). Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern More information. Tai Mène [tmp] 7,200 (1995 census). Borikhamxay Province, Vieng Thong District, several villages; Khamkeut District, many villages: Lak Xao, Khamkeut, Na Heuang, Nam Sak, Sop Chat, Ka'ane, Phon Thoen, Sop Pone, and Tha Veng. Alternate names: Tai Maen, Tai-Maen, Tay Mènè, Tai Mene, Tai Man, Tai Men. Dialects: Close to Saek. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Northern More information. Tai Nüa [tdd] 35,000 in Laos (1995 Chazee). Northwestern Laos. Also possibly in north Viet Nam. Alternate names: Chinese Shan, Tai Neua, Tai Nuea. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern, Northwest More information. Tai Pao [tpo] 3,300 (1995 census). Bolikhamxay Province, Viangthong, Khamkeut, Pakkading districts. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai More information. Talieng [tdf] 23,091 (1995 census). Muong Phine-Bung Sai area, Savannakhet Province. Alternate names: Taliang, Tariang. Dialects: Related to Trieng or Hre in Viet Nam; may be the same as Trieng. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, North Bahnaric, West More information. Ta'oih, Lower [tto] 15,836 (2000 WCD). Saravan Province, northwest of Saravan town. Alternate names: Tong. Dialects: Tong, Hantong'. Not intelligible with Upper Ta'oih. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, Central Katuic, Ta'oih More information. Ta'oih, Upper [tth] 30,876 in Laos (1995 census). 70% monolingual. Population total all countries: 49,876. Saravan Province, mainly in Ta-Oy District. Also spoken in USA, Viet Nam. Alternate names: Ta-Oy, Ta-Oi, Tau Oi, Ta Hoi, Kantua. Dialects: Pasoom, Kamuan', Palee'n, Leem, Ha'aang (Sa'ang). Not intelligible with Lower Ta'oih until speakers have had at least 2 weeks' contact. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, Central Katuic, Ta'oih More information. Tareng [tgr] 5,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Just west of Viet Nam border, east of Kayong, north of Chavane and Thia. Alternate names: Tariang. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, East Katuic, Katu-Pacoh More information. Tay Khang [tnu] 200. Khammouan Province. Possibly also in Viet Nam. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai More information. Thai, Northern [nod] 9,396 in Laos (2000 WCD). Haut Mekong and Sayaboury provinces, Laos. Alternate names: Lanna, Lan Na, Lanatai, Lannatai, "Yuan", "Youon", "Youanne", Myang, Muang. Dialects: Nan. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern, East Central, Chiang Saeng More information. The [thx] 2,920 (2000). Attopeu Province. Alternate names: Thae. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, West Bahnaric, Oi-The More information. Yoy [yoy] 1,000 in Laos (1995 census). Alternate names: Yoi, Yooi, Yooy, Dioi, Jui. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Northern Capital city: Vientiene Meaning country name: Name coined under French rule, derived from Lao lao meaning "a Laotian" or "Laotian", possibly originally from an ancient Indian word lava. Lava names one of the twin sons of the god Rama. Might also be from "Ai-Lao" the old Chinese name for the Tai ethnic groups of which the Lao people belong to.[9] Formerly known as "Lan Xang" or "land of a million elephants". Description Flag: The flag of Laos was adopted on December 2, 1975. The flag had previously been used by the short-lived Lao nationalist government of 1945. The flag consists of three horizontal strips, middle blue strip is twice the height of the top and bottom red stripes. In the middle is a white disc, the diameter of the disc is 0.8 times the height of the blue stripe. The flag ratio is 2:3. The red color in the flag represents the blood shed in the struggle for independence, the blue color symbolizes the wealth of the country. The white disc represents the moon over the river Mekong, as well as the unity of the country under the communist government. From 1952 until the fall of the royal government in 1975 the country had a red flag, with a white three-headed elephant (the god Erawan) in the middle. On top of the elephant is a nine-folded umbrella, while the elephant itself stands on a five level pedestal. The white elephant is a common royal symbol in south-east asia, the three heads referred to the three former kingdoms Vientiane, Luangprabang, and Xiengkhoung which made up the country. The nine-folded umbrella is also a royal symbol, originating from Mt. Meru in the Buddhist cosmology. The pedestal represented the law on which the country rested. Coat of arms: The coat of arms of Laos shows the national shrine Pha That Luang. Furthermore the dam appears as a symbol of power generation at the reservoir Nam Ngun, an asphalt street appears, and a stylized watered field is represented. In the lower part a section of a gear wheel is to be seen. The two inscriptions left and right read "Peace, Independence, Democracy" (lao script: ສັນຕິພາບ ເຬàºàº°àº¥àº²àº” ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ) and announce on the right "Unity and Prosperity" (lao script: ເຬàºàº°àºžàº²àºš ວັດຖະນາຖາວຬນ.) The coat of arms was modified in 1991. The existing Communist symbols red star as well as the hammer and sickle were replaced with the national shrine at Pha That Luang. The coat of arms is specified in the Laotian constitution: The National Emblem of the Lao People's Democratic Republic is a circle depicting in the bottom part one-half of a cog wheel and red ribbon with inscriptions [of the words] "Lao People's Democratic Republic", and [flanked by] crescent-shaped stalks of fully-ripened rice at both sides and red ribbons bearing the inscription "Peace, Independence, Democracy, Unity, Prosperity". A picture of That Luang Pagoda is located between the tips of the stalks of rice. A road, a paddy field, a forest and a hydroelectric dam are depicted in the middle of the circle. Motto: ສັນຕິພາບ ເອກະລາດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ເອກະພາບ ວັດທະນາຖາວອນ "Peace, Independence, Democracy, Unity and Prosperity" National Anthem: "Pheng Xat Lao" Lao lyrics ຊາດລາວຕັ້ງແຕ່ໃດມາ ລາວທຸກຖ້ວນຫນ້າເຊີດຊູສຸດໃຈ ຮ່ວມແຮງຮ່ວມຈິດຮ່ວມໃຈ ສາມັກຄີກັນເປັນກຳລັງດຽວ ເດັດດ່ຽວພ້ອມກັນກ້າວຫນ້າ ບູຊາຊູກຽດຂອງລາວ ສົ່ງເສີມໃຊ້ສິດເປັນເຈົ້າ ລາວທຸກຊົນເຜົ່າສະເໝີພາບກັນ ບໍ່ໃຫ້ຝູງຈັກກະພັດ ແລະພວກຂາຍຊາດ ເຂົ້າມາລົບກວນ ລາວທັງມວນຊູເອກະລາດ ອິດສະລະພາບ ຂອງຊາດລາວໄວ້ ຕັດສິນໃຈສູ້ຊິງເອົາໄຊ ພາຊາດກ້າວໄປສູ່ຄວາມວັດທະນາ Transliteration of Lao lyrics Xatlao tangtae dayma lao thookthuan na xeutxoo sootchay, Huamhaeng huamchit huamchay samakkhikan pen kamlang diao. Detdiao phomkan kaona booxa xukiat khong lao, Songseum xaysit pen chao laothook xonphao sameu pabkan. Bo hay Fung chackkaphat lae phuak khayxat khaomalob kuan, Lao thangmuan xoo ekkalat itsalaphab khong xatlao vai, Tatsin chay soo xing ao xay Pa Sad kaopay soo khuam vatthana. English translation For all time the Lao people have glorified their Fatherland, United in heart, spirit and vigour as one. Resolutely moving forwards, Respecting and increasing the dignity of the Lao people And proclaiming the right to be their own masters. The Lao people of all origins are equal And will no longer allow imperialists and traitors to harm them. The entire people will safeguard the independence And the freedom of the Lao nation. They are resolved to struggle for victory In order to lead the nation to prosperity. Internet Page: www.undplao.org www.na.gov.la www.visit-laos.com Laos in diferent languages eng | afr | arg | ast | bre | cat | ces | cym | dan | dsb | est | eus | fao | fin | fra | frp | fry | fur | glg | hat | hau | hrv | hsb | ina | isl | ita | jav | jnf | lim | lin | lld | mlt | nld | nor | oci | pol | roh | ron | rup | scn | slk | slv | sme | spa | srd | swa | swe | szl | tet | tgl | tur | vor | zza: Laos aze | bos | crh | gag | kaa | mol | tuk | uzb: Laos / Лаос deu | ltz | nds: Laos / Laos ind | msa: Laos / لأوس kin | run: Lawose lav | mlg: Laosa bam: Lawo cor: Pow Lao csb: Laòs epo: Laoso gla: Làthos; Laos gle: Laos / Laos glv: Yn Laos hun: Laosz ibo: Laus kmr: Laos / Лаос / لائۆس kur: Laos / لائۆس lat: Laosium; Laotia; Laotium; Laonia; Laosia lit: Laosas nrm: Lâos por: Laus; Laos que: Laws rmy: Laos / लाओस slo: Laozem / Лаозем smg: Lauosos smo: Lao sqi: Laosi vie: Lào vol: Laoän wln: Lawosse wol: Laawos alt | bul | che | chm | chv | kbd | kir | kjh | kom | krc | kum | mkd | mon | oss | rus | tyv | udm | ukr: Лаос (Laos) bak | srp | tat: Лаос / Laos abq: Лаос (Łaos) bel: Лаос / Łaos kaz: Лаос / Laos / لاوس tgk: Лаос / لئاس / Laos ara: لاوس (Lāwus); لاووس (Lāwūs); اللاوس (al-Lāwus); اللاووس (al-Lāwūs); لاو (Lāw) fas: لائوس / Lâos prs: لاوس (Lāōs) pus: لاوس (Lāos) uig: لائوس / Laos / Лаос urd: لیوس (Leos); لاؤس / لائوس (Lāʾos) div: ލާއޯސް (Lā'ōs) heb: לאוס (Laʾôs) lad: לאוס / Laos yid: לאַאָס (Laos) amh: ላኦስ (La'os); ላዎስ (Lawos) ell: Λάος (Láos) hye: Լաոս (Laos) kat: ლაოსი (Laosi) hin: लाओस (Lāos) ben: লাওস (Lāos) pan: ਲਾਓਸ (Lāos) kan: ಲಾಒಸ್ (Lāos) mal: ലാവോസ് (Lāvōs) tam: லாவோஸ் (Lāvōs) tel: లావోస్ (Lāvōs) zho: 寮國/寮国 (Liáoguó); 老挝 (Lǎowō) yue: 寮國/寮国 (Louhgwok) jpn: ラオス (Raosu) kor: 라오스 (Laoseu) bod: ལ་འོ་གོ་ (La.'o.go.); ལའོ་གོ་ (La'o.go.) dzo: ལ་འོསུ་ (La.'osu.) mya: လာအုိ (La'o) tha: ลาว (Lāw) lao: ລາວ (Lāw); ເມືອງລາວ (Mʉ̄aṅ Lāw); ປະເທດລາວ (Patʰēt Lāw) khm: ឡាវ (Ḷāv); លាវ (Lāv)

Lockheed MC-130P Combat Shadow 65-0991 one of the Son Tay Prison Camp raiders. Story borrowed from Air Force Magazine by C.V. Glines ------------------------------------------------------------ The mission statement might have been expressed simply: "Rescue approximately fifty American POWs from Son Tay prison near Hanoi, North Vietnam." However, the Air Force's planning for this mission was as comprehensive and meticulous as any in the history of the service. Moreover, it was the first major military operation to be conducted under the direct control of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The President made the final go/no go decision. Unfortunately, the rescue effort itself turned out to be futile, though it produced unintended benefits. The story of the Son Tay raid can be said to begin in the spring of 1970 when it was reported that an increasing number of American prisoners of the North Vietnamese had died in prison from beatings, torture, and starvation by their captors. At the time, more than 450 Americans were held captive in the undeclared war in southeast Asia, eighty percent of them in North Vietnam. More than half of them had been in prison more than 2,000 days. While Washington had very little information about the POWs' individual physical conditions, it was known that all were being held under the most primitive and inhumane conditions imaginable. Torture was a daily expectation; maintaining their sanity on a meager diet and in solitary confinement was a challenge. Within the Pentagon, a special, dedicated group was at work, locating and keeping an eye on all POW compounds through frequent aerial reconnaissance. Son Tay, on the Song Con River about twenty-three miles west of Hanoi, was one of the prisons under surveillance. It was believed that at least fifty and possibly as many as 100 prisoners were located in this isolated camp. (It was later established that fifty-seven POWs were held there at that time.) Analysts in Washington focused attention on the possibility that the American prisoners might be "extracted" from the camp by a specially trained force of Army and Air Force rescue experts. The idea was forwarded to Army Brig. Gen. Donald D. Blackburn, special assistant for Counterinsurgency and Special Activities under the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Army Gen. Earle G. Wheeler. General Blackburn was given permission to conduct a feasibility study to determine if a rescue was possible. The General, working with the CIA, the Defense Intelligence Agency, and the National Security Agency, developed a conceptual plan to extract the POWs. It was code-named "Polar Circle." Although such a bold idea did not "sell" immediately, it was eventually approved by the Joint Chiefs of Staff in July 1970 and given top-secret status. It would be a joint endeavor eventually involving twenty-six planners and a task force of 148 men to support and carry out the mission. US intelligence estimated that 12,000 North Vietnamese troops were stationed within a few miles of the POW camp. There were also air defense missile batteries and another compound nearby, labeled "secondary school" by intelligence specialists. High-altitude photos of the prison were taken frequently by SR-71 "Blackbirds" and low-altitude pictures by Buffalo Hunter reconnaissance drones. The POW camp was not very large and was built in two sections. One was a walled compound where prisoners were located, and the other was an administrative section. There was a small cleared area inside the compound, the size of a volleyball court, surrounded by trees more than forty feet high. A skilled pilot could land a small helicopter there, but it would probably be sacrificed if it struck the trees on descent. Staging From Takhli To hit with total surprise, the raid would be staged from Takhli RTAFB in central Thailand and launched at night from Udorn, south of the Laotian border. The flight from Udorn to Son Tay and back was a circuitous 687-mile route. It would be a strenuous mission over mountainous jungles at low altitudes. Weather figured strongly in planning. Adm. Thomas H. Moorer, the new Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, entrusted the mission to Air Force Brig. Gen. Leroy J. Manor, commander of the USAF Special Operations Group at Eglin AFB, Fla. His deputy was Army Col. Arthur D. "Bull" Simons, a strong, outspoken proponent of unorthodox operations who would lead the actual assault on the compound. The eventual plan was for an Army assault team to ride in one Air Force HH-3E Jolly Green Giant and five HH-53 helicopters to Son Tay, accompanied by two Air Force MC-130 Combat Talons that would navigate for them and two HC-130s to refuel the helicopters. A flight of five A-1E Skyraiders would provide an umbrella of cover, and ten F-4s would fly a MiG combat air patrol to intercept any enemy fighters that might try to interfere. General Manor later decided to add an F-105 "Wild Weasel" force to the operation to bait the North Vietnamese surface-to-air missile sites and lure their attention away from the assault force. The HH-3 was to land inside the compound with men who were to alert the prisoners and release them from their cells. The HH-53s would land outside with the rest of the assault force. Some were to secure the area around the compound and fight off any enemy forces that appeared. Others were to blow a hole in the prison wall and lead the POWs to the choppers. Meanwhile, the A-1Es would provide cover and be available to assist against any threatening enemy ground forces. After loading the prisoners on board the HH-53s, the entire force would depart for Udorn. Since the bombing pause was still in effect at the time, Navy planes would drop flares over the Haiphong area to distract and confuse the enemy defense forces. The leaders decided that the elite cadre of Air Force and Army specialists, all volunteers, would assemble and be trained at Eglin. Colonel Simons carefully selected 103 Army Special Forces Green Berets for the raid. The ranking man chosen as the ground force deputy was Army Lt. Col. Elliott P. "Bud" Sydnor, who would lead the security group that would land outside the compound, seal off the roads, and secure the guard quarters. Army Capt. Richard J. Meadows would head the assault team that would land inside the compound. General Manor selected Air Force search-and-rescue veterans for his lead helicopter pilots. They were Air Force Lt. Cols. Warner A. Britton, Herbert E. Zehnder, Royal C. Brown, and John V. Allison and Majs. Frederic M. Donohue, Herbert D. Kalen, and Kenneth D. Murphy. When Colonel Simons asked for a "combat-type" doctor, Army Lt. Col. Joseph R. Cataldo, former chief surgeon for the Green Berets, volunteered. A replica of the prison was constructed, using two-by-fours and target cloth with windows, doors, and gates cut out. The camp was rolled up and the post holes covered during daylight hours when Cosmos 355, a Soviet reconnaissance satellite, overflew Eglin. An arsenal was assembled, including assault rifles, grenades, claymore mines, blasting caps, and demolition charges. Break-in tools, such as bolt cutters, machetes, chain saws, axes, and acetylene torches, were collected along with night sights, ropes, fire extinguishers, and radios. Colonel Cataldo, concerned about the physical condition of the prisoners, ordered special medical kits with anesthetics, inflatable splints, and inhalation agents, in addition to cans of water, thermal ponchos, rubber shoes, pajamas, and baby food (in case the just-released POWs could not eat solid food). Practice, Practice, Practice Training began August 20 under strict security. The ground assault team practiced entry into and escape from the fake compound and the POW cell blocks 170 times, mostly at night, perfecting and smoothing out the details. Their training included target recognition, village surveillance, house search, hand signals, demolition placement, jungle survival, and much night firing. Colonel Cataldo taught them how to treat battle casualties. Meanwhile, the aerial force practiced night aerial refuelings, night formation flying, and flare-dropping, logging more than 1,000 hours in 268 sorties, without an accident. Major Kalen and copilot Colonel Zehnder made thirty-one practice night descents into the tree-shrouded eighty-five-foot clearing with the HH-3, a feat calling for a superior touch on the controls in unknown ground wind conditions. An HH-53, with Major Donohue at the controls, practiced shooting out the compound's guard towers with the side-firing Gatlings. There was nothing normal about the flying they would be doing on the three-and-a-half-hour flight to the target area. Two HC-130s would accompany the formation from Udorn and refuel the helicopters en route. Two MC-130 Combat Talons, modified with new infrared navigation systems, would guide the formation on a twisting route at low altitude through the mountains from the refueling point to Son Tay. The mixture of aircraft types posed the toughest problems for the pilots. A C-130's normal cruise speed is about 250 knots at low level, but for this mission they would have to fly at 105 knots with 70 flaps, barely above stalling speed. The heavily loaded HH-53s and especially the HH-3 would be flying on the high edge of their performance envelopes trying to keep up. They would have to learn to fly at that speed "in draft" behind the C-130s, much as racing drivers and cyclists do to increase speed and conserve fuel. The A-1Es also had an unusual requirement. Loaded with bombs and rockets, they had to make S-turns and fly at just above stalling speed to stay with a mother ship and not outrun the slower aircraft. On September 28, the Air Force and Army teams began practicing the assault together, some with tracer ammunition and satchel charges. Now truly a joint operation, the code name was changed to "Ivory Coast." On October 6, there was a final, full-fledged, live-fire rehearsal. If all went as planned, it would take about twenty-five minutes on the ground to get all the prisoners loaded and head for Udorn. Two days later, Generals Manor and Blackburn and Colonel Simons went to the White House and briefed Henry Kissinger, President Richard M. Nixon's National Security Advisor, and Brig. Gen. Alexander Haig, Mr. Kissinger's military executive officer, informing them that the mission had a "ninety-five to ninety-seven percent assurance of success." At this time, those in Washington following the status of the POW compound through air reconnaissance photos reported a "decline in activity" within the Son Tay camp. Weeds were growing where prisoners would have normally walked. On October 3, an SR-71's photos showed no sign of occupants. Some analysts thought that if POWs were still there, they were being punished for some reason and not being allowed outdoors. Later, SR-71 films showed "a definite increase in activity" at Son Tay. The first contingent of the rescue force departed Eglin AFB November 12 and all had arrived by November 17. The mission was then given its third code name: "Kingpin." President Nixon was briefed and gave the OK; a "red rocket" coded message was sent to General Manor to "execute." General Manor and Colonel Simons gave a joint briefing to their men at 2 p.m. November 18 in the base theater at Takhli with a schedule to be observed for the following three days. During the next day, weapons and equipment were checked. Some limited test firing was conducted. An escape-and-evasion briefing was given and blood chits were provided. The ground force would consist of fifty-six Army and ninety-two Air Force personnel, but still only a handful knew what their destination was to be. Bad News Develops Bad news developed in Washington when a usually reliable intelligence source in Hanoi stated that the Son Tay prisoners had been moved. Reconnaissance aircraft tried to get last-minute photographs of the camp November 18 but failed. However, another report indicated that the camp was occupied by "someone." Secretary of Defense Melvin R. Laird was briefed on the possibility that no prisoners were in the camp. General Blackburn and DIA Director Lt. Gen. Donald V. Bennett recommended the raid proceed, weather permitting. Mr. Laird agreed and so advised the President, who acknowledged that it was worth the risk. The "go" message was sent to General Manor at Takhli. General Manor laid on the mission for the night of November 20. In the Red River Valley, little cloudiness was expected, as were good visibility and light winds. As the General reported later, "The night of 20/21 November 1970 was the only night for many days before and after that date that launch would have been possible." Vice Adm. Frederic A. Bardshar aboard USS Oriskany was sent his go-ahead planning message, which said simply, "NCA approval received." The aircrews of fifty-nine strike and support aircraft were briefed but not told why they would be flying over the major North Vietnamese port of Haiphong and dropping only flares, not bombs. They were given permission to fire their Shrike air-to-surface missiles and 20-mm ammunition against any enemy radar-controlled SAM defenses that posed a threat to US forces and to support search-and-rescue missions if anyone were shot down. Although the launch order had not yet been given at the time of a noon briefing at Takhli on November 20, all personnel were issued sleeping pills and ordered to rest from 1 p.m. to 5 p.m. Following chow, all air and ground force personnel were assembled in the base theater where Colonel Simons told the group they were going to rescue as many as seventy American POWs, "something American prisoners have a right to expect from their fellow soldiers," he said. "The target is twenty-three miles west of Hanoi." The audience was stunned into silence, then a few let out low whistles. Then, they stood up and applauded. The task force members boarded C-130s for the flight from Takhli to Udorn where the choppers and HC-130s and MC-130s waited; A-1E crews were taken to Nakhon Phanom RTAFB. The C-130s, the HH-3E, and five HH-53s began taking off at 11:10 p.m. Under complete radio silence, they formed up and set course for North Vietnam. By the time they crossed the Laotian border, a total force of 116 aircraft had departed from seven bases in Thailand and the three carriers in the Tonkin Gulf. Five F-105s reached the Son Tay area at high altitudes to keep the SAM batteries from acquiring radar locks on the approaching assault force, while ten F-4Ds from Udorn went into high orbit looking for MiGs. Rendezvous and refueling of the helicopters with the HC-130P tanker was accomplished over Laos despite an unidentified aircraft flying a reciprocal heading at their altitude, which briefly scattered the formation. The helicopters managed to regain formation with increased separation through occasional clouds. All aircraft were refueled as scheduled. The official Air Force history of the mission describes what happened next: "The raiders entered the objective area below 500 feet. The C-130s led the six choppers until Son Tay lay only three and one-half miles ahead. At that point, the leading C-130 climbed to 1,500 feet followed by two HH-53 choppers: Apple 4, piloted by Lt. Col. Royal C. Brown and Maj. Ryland R. Dreibelbis; and Apple 5 with Maj. Kenneth D. Murphy and Capt. William M. McGeorge at the controls. "Brown's Apple 4 was the primary flare chopper and one of those designated to haul back the released prisoners. Apple 5 was the secondary flare helicopter. Over the Son Tay compound, the flares worked perfectly, so the choppers flew to a planned holding area on islands in the Finger Lake, seven miles west of Son Tay, while the C-130 circled to drop a firefight simulator (firecrackers with timed fuses) on the sapper [secondary] school. It then released its pallet of napalm before flying off to its designated orbit. "The second C-130, only a minute behind the first, came in leading the A-1s. After the A-1s pulled away, this C-130 dropped a napalm marker and then joined the other C-130 in its orbit while the Skyraiders bombed a nearby bridge before taking up their orbit over the flaming pool of napalm." With this many aircraft involved, it was perhaps inevitable that someone would have a mechanical difficulty. Apple 3, the lead HH-53 flown by Major Donohue and Capt. Thomas R. Waldron, had an apparent transmission failure, indicated by a red warning light. This is enough to cause concern in any helicopter crew and bring a forced landing under normal circumstances. However, warning lights are not always dependable, and Major Donohue chose to ignore it. The helicopter gunners on board blasted two prison guard towers and the guard barracks. Major Kalen and Colonel Zehnder, following in the HH-3, found the cleared area inside the compound and began the letdown through large trees that were twice as tall as anyone had thought. Tree limbs, leaves, and debris were blasted everywhere as the chopper's blades sliced through them and descended to a landing. The impact caused the right door gunner to be thrown out of the helicopter, but he was unhurt. Colonel Zehnder, Major Kalen, and TSgt. Leroy M. Wright, the HH-3 flight engineer who broke an ankle in the landing, scrambled out to guard the aircraft and ready medical kits for POWs and casualties. Out jumped Captain Meadows, leader of the prison assault group, and his thirteen men. No Response Captain Meadows, carrying the bullhorn, shouted, "We're Americans. Keep your heads down. This is a rescue. We're here to get you out." There was no response as his men raced from cell to cell. The team split up into action elements and reached their assigned cell blocks, eliminating enemy soldiers. Meanwhile, the helicopter carrying Colonel Simons and his twenty-two-man team had landed by mistake at the "secondary school" 450 meters south of the prison. It was an understandable error. The two compounds looked similar at night, and a canal running alongside the school looked like the Song Con River. The pilot, Colonel Britton, was following the chopper ahead of him and did not see it change course suddenly while he prepared for his landing. Colonel Sydnor saw the mistake and put an alternate plan into effect: he had his men head for the area outside the prison wall, where he set up his command post. Colonel Britton offloaded the Simons group and flew to his holding area. The raiders under Colonel Simons were immediately engaged in a furious firefight with what appeared in the darkness to be well-armed Chinese or Russian soldiers. With the advantage of complete surprise, his men killed more than 100 of them within the next few minutes. Colonel Simons hurriedly called Colonel Britton back and reboarded his men for the quick flight to the prison. Remarkably, there were no assault group casualties. By this time, Captain Meadows and his men had engaged in a firefight and had killed a dozen or more surprised North Vietnamese. The first report of "negative items" (no prisoners) came from one of the two-man teams checking the cells; others quickly followed. Captain Meadows radioed General Manor at his command post: "Search complete. Negative items." Colonel Sydnor ordered the demolition of the HH-3, and the order was given for all to load up for departure. The raid had taken twenty-eight minutes, and surprise had been complete. Sergeant Wright had a broken ankle, and one other raider sustained a minor thigh wound. One of Colonel Simons's men had broken his pants belt and had hurriedly grabbed one from a corpse to replace it. It was the only souvenir of the raid. The men returned to Thailand in disappointed silence. On the way home, two of the F-105s were attacked by SAMs; one of them was hit, and the two-man crew bailed out over Laos. A C-123 Provider dropped flares where the men were thought to be, and A-1Es "sanitized" the area. Two helicopters from the assault force located them and snatched them to safety. Despite the successful execution of the raid, public response was negative. Some critics called the assault a "major escalation of the war," while others insisted that the POWs had been endangered by such an attempt to rescue them. The truth was just the opposite. After the raid, prisoners at other locations were quickly transferred to Hoa Lo Prison in downtown Hanoi, nicknamed the "Hanoi Hilton" by the POWs. Their treatment eased; many received letters and parcels. For the first time in many months, most of them had cell mates to talk to. Morale soared. The men organized themselves into squadrons with assigned duties for each, helped each other with medical care, held church services, and conducted math and language classes. "Our Country Had Not Forgotten" Rep. Sam Johnson (R-Tex.) had been a prisoner since he was shot down in an F-4 Phantom II on April 16, 1966. He and his fellow inmates at Hoa Lo felt sure a raid had taken place when they heard the ruckus and saw the flares over Hanoi during the early morning hours of November 21, but they had no positive evidence until the summer of 1971. He received some hard candy from his wife, Shirley. "I plopped one in my mouth and sucked on it," he said. "I felt something stiff, like a tiny plastic sliver, stick against the roof of my mouth. When I picked it out with my fingers, I found it to be a tiny brown speck, about the size of a pinhead. I rubbed it between my fingers, and it began to unfold. Amazed, I rubbed some more. In seconds, it had opened to the width of 16-mm film. . . . It was microfilm of the front page of the New York Times telling all about the Son Tay raid. Obviously, the Air Force had given the candy to Shirley to send. The young guys with good eyes could read it and gave us the details. "We knew then that our country had not forgotten us." One question that has not been fully answered is exactly when or why the prisoners were moved. Some speculate that it was because of rising water of the Song Con River bordering the camp, four months before the raid. Others believe it may have been to consolidate prisoners to save manpower or to prevent knowledge of their whereabouts. The only certainty is that the POWs benefitted indirectly from the raid. And, as one raider said, "If there had been POWs there, we would have gotten them out."

Ko Chang (เกาะช้าง) is an island in Trat Province, Eastern Thailand. Ko Chang is Thailand's second largest island, and the biggest in Eastern Thailand. With about 5,000 permanent residents the island is not heavily populated, but tourism (and development) has increased dramatically over the last few years. Ko Chang is one of Thailand's most beautiful islands with long white sandy beaches. The island is also home to a wide range of wildlife, including a good selection of birds, snakes, deer and a number of elephants. The island and its vicinity are great places for snorkeling, diving and jungle hiking. The "discovery" of the island as a tourist destination since 2000 has brought on a large amount of rapid development, and while still far quieter than places like Phuket or Ko Samui, it is far from quiet in high season. Regarding services and activities specifically aimed at tourists prices have reached such a level that the islanders are pricing themselves out of the market when compared to the other islands. HISTORY Prior to World War II, Ko Chang was little known to Westerners and was lightly-populated. The few families there made a living growing coconuts and fruit on the mainland. In January 1941, during the Franco-Thai War, the Thai Navy fought against a French surprise attack in in the waters to the south of Ko Chang. The first backpacking foreigners started arriving on local fishing boats in the mid-1970s. In 1982, Ko Chang, along with surrounding areas, became part of Mu Ko Chang National Marine Park. Only very recently, in less than ten years, Ko Chang has turned into a major tourist destination, both for foreigners and local Thais. This sudden tourism boom however, has been fraught with controversy concerning land use, etc. The government is trying to "develop" it from a backpackers' paradise to a top-level destination, and construction work is going on throughout the island, with basic huts torn down to make way for fancy resorts. GEOGRAPHY Ko Chang is the largest island in the Ko Chang Archipelago. The name means Elephant Island, named for the elephant shape of its headland, although elephants are not indigenous to the island. Ko Chang has an area of approximately 429 square kilometres. The topography contains high mountains and complex stone cliffs. The highest mount is Khao Salak Phet which is 744 metres high, rich in fertile evergreen forest which is the main water source. Therefore, there are many waterfalls, beaches and splendid reefs in the west of the island. Most accommodation is located on the western side of the island, where the sandy beaches are. On the eastern side of the island there are few sandy beaches; as such, this side is far less touristy. There are some nice waterfalls though. 70 percent of this undisturbed island is rainforest, steep hills, cliffs, waterfalls, and wildlife, fine beaches, coral reefs and an abundance of marine life. The island also offers tall mountains and rock cliffs. CLIMATE Ko Chang has the same seasons as Bangkok. The best season to go is the (comparatively) cool season between November and February. March to May are roasting hot and between June and October it rains, and a lot at that: 4,000 mm in an average year. Many guest houses close during this season, so accommodation is limited. GET IN BY PLANE Bangkok Airways flies 3 times a day from Bangkok's Suvarnabhumi Airport (the "new" BKK) to Trat Airport. The flights depart at 08:30, 11:40 and 17:05, and take 1 hour exactly. Ticket prices are between 2,000B and 3,800B return trip depending on the time of year. Direct door-to-door minibus transfers from Trat airport to Ko Chang resorts cost 500 Baht/person one way and 900 Baht/person return including the ferry crossing. The minibuses are air-conditioned. From Bangkok's Suvarnabhumi Airport, take the free express shuttle bus from outside the arrivals concourse to the airport's own bus terminal, and from there the next available bus to either Trat or Chanthaburi, then proceed as described below. BY BUS From Bangkok the most economical way to get to Laem Ngop (where the Ko Chang ferry piers are) is to take a 1st class bus #999 from the Eastern (Ekamai) Bus Terminal direct to the Laem Ngop piers. The fare is 275 baht one-way (520 baht return) and takes just over five hours. Departures from Ekamai are at 07:45 & 09:45, and return at 14:00. Subject to seat availability, this bus can also be boarded at Chanthaburi and at Suvarnabhumi Airport. However, as of December 2009 there was a more comfortable way to travel from Bangkok Airport to Ko Chang: the new bus line # 392 starts from the airport bus terminus (make sure to take a free shuttle from main airport to airport bus terminus) at 07:30 and returns from Koh Chang at 12:30. Tickets can be bought online at the Suvarnabhumi Burapha Bus Company. As of 1 Nov. 2010 there are also express shared minibuses running from Suvarnabhumi airport non-stop to Lonely Beach on Ko Chang. Tickets are 308 baht for the big bus and 600 baht (800 baht round trip)for the Lonely Beach Express minibus which includes a ticket for the ferry. However, this service can be unreliable; jammed minivans with unsecure luggage and drivers breaking traffic rules. It is also not guaranteed that your return will be by minivan, but rather with a large bus carrying people for other destinations which requires lengthy stops along the way. Alternatively, there are 1st class (approx. 5 hours, around 250 baht) and 2nd class services from both the Eastern Bus Terminal (Ekamai) and Northern Bus Terminal (Moh Chit) direct to Trat, and frequent songthaew services from Trat to Laem Ngop (approx. 30 minutes, 50 baht/person). Departures from Ekamai are more frequent than from Moh Chit. If coming by bus from the south, the #511 air-con bus can be used to connect directly between Bangkok's Southern (Sai Tai Mai) and Eastern (Ekamai) bus terminals. Departures from Ekamai on the Cherdchai Private Bus company second class bus are 255 Baht to Trat (March 2015), with departures approximately every 2 hours during the day and advertised travel time being 4 hours. There is a new government bus line 999 that travels between Ekamai station and the ferry to Ao Thammachart Pier. It is properly airconditioned and each traveller receives a refreshment pack. Unfortunately the travel times for bus 999 are limited. There are only 2 departure times per day, both in the morning. The Cherdchai Private Bus company night sells seats on a first class airconditioned night bus that leaves Ekamai at 11.30pm and arrives in Trat town around 5am the next morning but it cannot be recommended as the bus was crowded, the airconditioning was almost non-existent, the toilet stank of urine and the bus itself was filthy. Be careful too that if the Cherdchai ticket booth at Ekamai charges you for a ferry ticket to Koh Chang as the ferry ticket is overpriced and puts you on a ferry to Centrepoint Pier, which is a 45 minutes trip compared to 25 minutes if you take the ferry to Ao Thammachart Pier. Connection in Trat can also be used if coming from Pattaya (2nd class bus, 4 hours, around 200 baht). There are direct minibus services to Laem Ngop from Pattaya, Ban Phe (gateway to Ko Samet), and Bangkok's Khao San Road and Victory monument (in front of the Payathai hospital). They, however, are less comfortable and spacious than public buses, and you may be charged significantly more by travel agencies selling tickets to these, as often with any tourist-oriented transportation in Thailand. It may also be possible to proceed directly to Laem Ngop by minibus or songthaew from the Hat Lek / Koh Kong border crossing with southern Cambodia, depending on the time of year, time of day, etc - enquire locally. Price around 120 baht (one way) from the border to Trat bus station. BY BOAT Most ferries operate from Laem Ngop, which has three piers . The Laem Ngop (Tha Khrom Luang or Tha Laern Ngop) pier is approximately 700 metres west of Laem Ngop. The Centrepoint (Tha Centre Point) pier is located about 3.5 km north-west of Laem Ngop. These piers serve both vehicle and passenger ferries. Koh Chang vehicle ferry pier is located in Thammachat Bay (Ao Thammachat), around 15 km west of Laem Ngop. All piers on Ko Chang are situated on the eastern side of the island. The major piers are the two Dan Kao piers, Tha Dan Kao and Tha Ferry Dan Kao, who handles most of the traffic. To take a boat from Laem Ngop to the Dan Kao piers take around 45 minutes. The car ferry from Laem Ngop take around 1 hour and arrives at the Tha Ferry Dan Kao pier, situated 400 metres southeast of the Tha Dan Kao pier. The car ferry from Thammachat Bay stops at the Ko Chang Ferry Pier (Tha Ferry Ko Chang) in the Sapparot Bay (Ao Sapparot), 3 kilometres northwest from the Dan Kao piers. Light meals, fruit, fruits and beverages are available at all the piers and on the car ferries. There are two operators that provide daily speedboat services from Ko Kood to Ko Chang. One is based in Bang Bao, the other on Kai Bae Beach [6] Rates are the same but departures times can vary, so make sure to book ahead. GET AROUND In the daytime, you can catch a songtheaw on its route around the main road for 50 or 150 baht/person, depending how far you go. The rates are generally much higher than in other places, but the vehicles are almost new and in excellent condition. Starting from 5.00pm, many of them start to ask "taxi" price, telling you that they operate as a public transport only until that time, and may quote prices as high as say 500 baht from Lonely Beach to the Dan Kao pier (bargain if you choose to hire, do not support silly prices!). However, if you have some time and patience, you still can try and have a "shared" ride with some drivers, maybe for a higher rate if they expect little or no other passengers. These taxis are also waiting at the Dan Kao Pier (50 baht/person to White Sand beach, 100 baht to Lonely Beach). At the Dan Kao Ferry-Pier there may be no taxis available. If you arrive without a vehicle you may have to walk the 400 metres to Dan Kao Pier. The prices have become unofficially fixed and there is little room for bargaining; however, the price you pay to return should be the price you payed to come in the first place (50B White Sands, 100B Lonely, 150B Bang Bao). If they try to add 50B to that, decline (not politely). There will be another taxi and accepting the price increase condones the practice and causes price increases over time. Small motorcycles can be rented for 150-300B per day. The main road is sealed and almost circles the island and there are plans to complete the circuit in the near future. Cars are also available for rental, most hotels can help with it. 4x4 car recommended, since some roads might be in bad condition, especially near Lonely Beach. To rent a motorbike at the center point pier is a good option to save money, as you are avoiding the expensive taxi rides. It further gives you the freedom to drive to more remote beaches where you most of the time fine lower rates for accommodation. [Update April 2014: Center Point motorbike rentals charging 250 baht/day daily rentals, 200 baht/day for 5 days, and 150 baht/day for monthly rentals. Price is (apparently) non negotiable. They also only provide you with ~.7L of fuel, so it's on you to fill the rest of the way up.] If there are 2 or more people going with you, hiring a songtheaw may cost the same price, or even be cheaper than paying per each person in a "shared" songtheaw (there is no difference, an empty songtheaw can easily be hired). Just do not forget to bargain if their price sounds quite silly when compared, say, to Bangkok taxi-meter (on Ko Chang it can be difficult if not impossible to get the same price, but at least it should not cost double or even more). Generally most people just stay on the beach of their choice and walk to wherever they want to go. Hitching on Ko Chang is also an alternative if you choose not to pay the often exorbitant fees of the songtheaw. Many islanders are more than willing to pick up a hitchhiker who happens to be going the same way they are. A Coke or cold bottle of green tea for the driver are always appreciated at the end of your journey. SEE Elephants - There are three or four places offering elephant rides. We checked them out and none of them are 'elephant friendly'. Please think carefully about wanting to sit on a chair on the back of an elephant. All you can see from the is trees and a long drop to the ground. Elephants for riding are 'broken' when they are babies. They are guided by a mahout with an 'ice pick'. The ice pick is not for show. It is used on the elephant. Perhaps not when you are there... Elephants under stress rock from side to side and actually look distressed. If you see this behaviour, or see that the animals are being chained with little or no shade, or see that they do 'tricks', they are being misused. This becomes your choice. Do you perpetuate a cruel practice for a bit of fun, or do you look elsewhere? - The Mu Ko Chang National Park - National Marine Park comprising parts of Ko Chang and 46 other islands - War memorial monument - in the very south of the island WATERFALLS - Klong Plu - the most popular waterfall, and the only one on the west side of the island - Klong Nonsi - waterfall on the east side of the island - Klong Nueng - said to be the most breathtaking waterfall - Khiri Petch - medium sized waterfall, about 3 kilometres from Salak Petch village - Kongoi - 5 waterfalls near Bang Bao - The Thanmayom - near Thanmayom pier DO Scuba diving and fishing are the most popular activities, because there are many beautiful corals and many kinds of fish for fishing. Additionally, a jungle trekking is a great idea. Jungle trekking is divided in 2 parts- north and south. Jungle trekking of north is a nature walk that contains many kinds of fruit, and several of plants. On the other hand, jungle trekking of south includes visiting fishing villagse and offers you to see a variety of animals (monkeys, snakes, birds, lizards) You can also learn how to cook Thai food. The cost for each courses starts form 1200 baht. They will teach popular Thai food such as spicy salad (som-tum), chicken curry (kang keaw wan), spicy soup (tom yum), fried rice noodles (Pad Thai), and so on. Moreover, the main activity in koh chang is the island sightseeing. You can see a famous Chinese temple that everybody should visit and pray. WIKITRAVEL

The outset of World War II saw a progression of American aircraft carrier design leading to larger and more heavily armored battle carriers. CVB-41, the lead ship of the Midway class, was ordered on August 7, 1942. She was the first fleet carrier to have the distinction of being named after a WWII battle. The carrier battle of Midway Island in June 1942 turned the tide of World War II and proved conclusively the potential of naval aviation. CVB-41 was the third American ship and the second aircraft carrier to bear the name of Midway. The name of the first USS Midway, a fleet auxiliary, was changed to the USS Panay in April, 1943. The second ship bearing the name was a jeep carrier USS Midway, CVE-63, which was changed to the USS Saint Lo in September 1944. The product of the Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company, she was the lead ship of three 45,000-ton Midway class CVBs, followed by USS Franklin D. Roosevelt, CVB-42 and USS Coral Sea, CVB-43. Two additional ships were canceled. Midway's keel was laid on October 27, 1943. The Midway class hull arrangement was modeled on the canceled Montana class battleships and was a new, much larger design intended to correct certain problems in the Essex class design. They had armored flight decks, requiring a much larger hull and lower freeboard, to reduce top weight. They also carried a very heavy AA battery of 5/54 weapons. The armor requirement was originally meant to counter 8" cruiser gunfire, but by the time the ships were laid down the focus had shifted to defending against aircraft attack. Launched on March 20, 1945, she was sponsored by Mrs. Bradford William Ripley, Jr. Commissioned on September 10, 1945, with Captain Joseph F. Bolger in command, Midway was the largest warship in the world for the first decade of her service. Every aspect of her construction included the most modern design innovations possible. Twelve Babcock and Wilcox boilers powered four Westinghouse geared turbines which developed 212,000 horsepower for a maximum speed of 33 knots. Midway was designed with two catapults, fourteen arresting cables, and six barriers. Her design aircraft compliment was 137. In their early years, the Midway class carriers were the only ships capable of operating nuclear strike aircraft. Midway was first underway on October 12, 1945 and performed her first arrested landing of an F4U-4 Corsair. Her Caribbean shakedown cruise lived up to all expectations, the only negative being a pronounced proclivity to drench the flight deck and the bow 40mm quad mount with green water in moderately heavy seas. Seriously overweight, Midway tended to plunge through, rather than ride over, heavy seas. The result of wartime demands that had continually added more tonnage, Midway quickly earned a reputation as a "wet" ship with her forward flight deck, gun galleries and hangar spaces frequently awash. In her final years, crewmembers described this plunging as "Rock & Roll." In late February 1946 Midway became flagship for Carrier Division 1, operating in the Atlantic where she commenced flight training exercises in earnest. A few months late she embarked on her first major operational assignment, which included Operation FROSTBITE, conducted from March 1 to 28, 1946. Operating in the Labrador Sea and Davis Strait, MIDWAY, three destroyers and a fleet oiler conducted a cold weather evaluation of aircraft, personnel and ships. Embarked onboard Midway was a Coast Guard helicopter and crew, which signified the first use of a helicopter for plane guard duty. Helicopter air-sea rescue techniques were refined and the infamous "poopy suit" was evaluated. Midway conducted flight and refueling operations during these tests despite heavy weather damage to elevator hangar doors and having two to four inches of snow on the flight deck at various times. Early in 1947, operating off the East Coast with her recently redesignated battle group, CVBG-1, Midway operated F4U-4B Corsairs and SB2-C-5 Helldivers. She conducted three training cruises in the Caribbean before sailing from her homeport at Norfolk, Virginia, on another experimental mission. On that landmark cruise, she was accompanied by scientific observers as her crew fired a captured German V-2 rocket from the flight deck on September 6, 1947. The purpose of Operation SANDY was to see if a large rocket could be launched from the deck of an aircraft carrier with little to no modifications. The actual ship launch test was only conducted once. There were prior tests carried out at White Sands on a simulated aircraft carrier deck to see what effects the rocket would have if it were to explode on the deck. This test marked the first time such a weapon was fired from a ship at sea or a moving platform. It decisively demonstrated the potential of large rocket fire from surface ships. On October 29, 1947, Midway departed on her first deployment to the Mediterranean. Her air wing group was CVBG-1, made up of two fighter squadrons, which flew F4U-B Corsairs and AD-1 Skyraiders. Port calls during this cruise included Gibraltar, Algeria (Bone), Malta (Marsaxlokk Harbor), Italy (Genoa, Naples, and Taranto), Sicily (Augusta), and France (Gulf D'Hyeres). On February 18, 1948, a Midway launch capsized off Hyeres, France, killing eight. The deployment concluded in Norfolk, Virginia in March of 1948. A return trip to the Mediterranean was made from January to March 1949. This time, two Marine fighter squadrons were aboard. This cruise was hallmarked when a P2V-3 Neptune launched from Midway off the coast of Norfolk, flew to the Panama Canal, then over Corpus Christi, Texas and on to San Diego, California. This 4,800 mile non-stop flight was completed in 25 hours and 40 minutes. This operation was part of the Navy's determination to develop a carrier-based nuclear strike capability. The Navy modified twelve Lockheed P2V Neptunes to carry the 9000-lb Mk VIII atomic bomb. All three Midway carriers participated in extensive tests that saw this 70,000-lb long-range patrol bomber clear the deck with JATO-assisted rolling takeoffs. Unable to be launched by the ship's hydraulic catapults because of the aircraft's weight, the P2V's wingspan barely cleared the ship's island during its takeoff run. A "make do" aircraft modification too heavy to land on the carriers, the P2Vs turned in impressive performances flying mock "A-bomb" runs. Soon replaced by the more suitable folding-wing AJ-1 Savage, the Navy nevertheless proved that its carriers had nuclear delivery capability. Midway departed Norfolk in October 1949 once again bound for cold weather operations. She operated in the Arctic Circle, gaining membership in "The Royal Order of the Blue Nose," and returned to Norfolk on December 22, 1949. Midway deployed to the Mediterranean for a third time in January 1950 with Air Group Four. Port calls included Istanbul, Cyprus, Malta, Cannes, Oran and Lisbon. She returned to Norfolk in May of that year. On June 26, a Naval airship piloted by Lt. John Fahey, landed and then took off from the Midway during a demonstration for the Chief of Naval Operations and the Commander in Chief, U.S. Atlantic Fleet who were aboard Midway. With less than two months to turn around, Midway redeployed in July, exchanging Air Group Four for Air Group Seven. She arrived in Gibraltar with an upgraded fighter capability consisting of F9F-2 Panthers and F8F-1B Bearcats. On October 17th LTJG H. Urban, a pilot from VC-4 became Midway's first Centurion. He made his 100th Midway trap (his 207th career carrier landing) while flying an AD-3N. On this cruise, Midway served as the flagship of COMCARDIV Six and returned to Norfolk in November. The first two years of Midway class carrier operations revealed several shortcomings which were progressively addressed with refits and modifications to maintain the ships' first-line assault carrier status. Their flight decks were reinforced to accept the landing weight of the new 45,000-lb twin-engined, jet-augmented AJ-1 Savage. At this time the process of reducing wartime armament began when four of their eighteen five-inch/54 DP guns were removed. Also begun was the gradual replacement of 40mm Bofors with twenty new three-inch/50 fast-firing semi-automatic AA guns. The test of rigorous steaming soon revealed several other deficiencies which could not be ignored. Skippers complained that the Midway's bridge area was too cramped. This was corrected during construction by extending the island structure on the Coral Sea, and retrofitting enlarged areas to the Midway and Franklin D. Roosevelt during overhaul. These changes also afforded better placement of the gun directors. Later, the three ships would be fitted with "hurricane" bows that enclosed the forward flight deck and hull. From November 1950 until April 1951, Midway was in the Norfolk Naval Shipyard for reinforcement of the flight deck to accommodate heavier aircraft. After conducting brief carrier qualifications off the Carolina coast, she steamed south for Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. After completing refresher training Midway returned to Norfolk in July. In January 1952, Midway made her fifth Mediterranean cruise with Air Group Six embarked. During this cruise, Midway participated in Operation GRAND SLAM, a multi-national English, French, Italian and U.S. exercise. Upon completion of this exercise, she operated in the eastern Mediterranean before returning to Norfolk in May 1952. From 26 to 29 May 1952, the feasibility of the angled deck concept was demonstrated in tests conducted on a simulated angled deck aboard Midway by Naval Air Test Center pilots and Atlantic Fleet pilots in both jet and prop aircraft. In August 1952, Midway departed Norfolk for NATO exercises in the North Sea. This was a combined exercise with USS Franklin D. Roosevelt, USS Wasp, and USS Wisconsin. On October 1, upon her return to Norfolk, Midway was redesignated as attack carrier CVA-41. Again with less than two months preparation, Midway departed on her sixth Mediterranean cruise in December of 1952. The basic composition of the air group remained unchanged. Participating in NATO Operation RENDEZVOUS from March 15 - 24, Midway was the flag ship of Carrier Division Four and made port calls at Gibraltar, France (Golfe Juan and Marseilles), Italy (Taranto, Naples, Genoa, and LaSpezia), Algeria (Algiers and Oran), Sicily (Augusta), Greece (Rhodes and Salonika), Golfe Juan, and Spain (Barcelona & Palma). Returning to Norfolk in May 1953, Midway entered a five-month regular overhaul. In January 1954, Midway deployed to the Mediterranean for the seventh time. Just before entering port in Athens for a state visit, Midway collided with a replenishment ship, USS Great Sitkin, AE-17. Occurring in the Aegean Sea about 1700 on a Sunday, the ships were conducting side-by-side transfer of materials in rough seas. Swells were reported to be about 15 feet between the ships. Upon casting off the last securing lines, the Great Sitkin began a sharp starboard turn. This caused her port stern area to sideswipe the Midway's aft starboard side, just above the waterline, crushing one of the starboard weather deck 5" gun mounts. There was no fire and damage control made temporary repairs while underway. Also during this cruise, a major fire on the flight deck occurred when an F2H bounced over the barrier and went into the pack. Casualties were four pilots and approximately four crew. This cruise was extended an additional month due to their relief, USS Bennington having a catastrophic port catapult machinery explosion, which killed about 100 of the crew. The Bennington had to return to CONUS for repairs before finally departing for the Mediterranean. Midway returned to Norfolk in August of 1954. In December 1954, with Air Group One aboard, Midway departed Norfolk on a world cruise, which culminated in her transfer to the Pacific Fleet. Joining the Seventh Fleet off Taiwan in February 1955, she became the flagship of COMCARDIV Three, operating off the Philippine Islands and Japan. Shortly after her arrival in the area, Midway participated in the evacuation of 24,000 military and civilian personnel of the Republic of China from the Tachen Islands, off the China coast. She remained in the area patrolling the Taiwan Straits and the South China Sea until June. For this operation, Midway was awarded the China Service Medal. Midway left Yokosuka, Japan and returned to NAS Alameda, California in July 1955. She entered Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, Washington and was decommissioned for the first time in October 1955. While the gradual removal of armament helped to curtail the burden of excessive weight, the advent of the angled carrier deck not only added additional tons of displacement, but became a serious factor in stability. Built as axial, or straight-deck carriers, the problem of cycling and spotting aircraft for either launching or recovery operations remained a detriment to combat efficiency since only one function could be performed at a time. The angled flight deck, pioneered by the British, changed all that. After being decommissioned, Midway underwent a modernization project to give her the capability to operate high performance jet aircraft. She was fitted with two steam catapults on the bow and a shorter steam catapult in the new angle deck. The purpose of the third catapult was to allow ready deck launches while keeping the landing area clear for recoveries in an "alert" situation. Additional improvements included the installation of a hurricane (enclosed) bow, moving elevator number three to the starboard deck edge aft of the island, enlarging the number one elevator to accommodate longer aircraft, new arresting gear, jet blast deflectors, and the largest aviation crane ever installed on an aircraft carrier. On recommissioning in September 1957, Midway's load displacement had grown from 55,000 to 62,000 tons. Midway was soon underway in December heading south for shakedown and refresher training. In August 1958, she was underway on her first deployment as an angle deck carrier. With Midway's increased combat capabilities, CVG-2 was composed of two supersonic fighter squadrons and three attack squadrons. On 8 December 1958, the first firing of a Sparrow III air-to-air missile by a squadron deployed outside the U.S. was conducted by VF-64, based aboard Midway. During this cruise, she operated off Taiwan in support of the Quemoy-Matsu crisis as the flagship of COMCARDIV Five. She returned to Alameda in March of 1959. In August 1959, after a one-month turn around period, Midway redeployed to the Far East. During this cruise, she recorded 8,000 landings, including her 80,000th arrested landing. On November 09, 1959, during a port visit to Subic Bay in the Philippines, a fire broke out in the pump room aboard the carrier. While the reason was never clear, official sources named arson. Her eleventh deployment ended with arrival at Alameda in March 1960. Following a five-month overhaul, Midway underwent refresher training, operating from Long Beach, California. During this training, the McDonnell F4H-1 Phantom II and the North American A3J-1 Vigilante were aboard for their carrier qualifications prior to entering actual service. Upon completion of her refresher training, Midway was underway in February 1961. With Air Group Two aboard, she operated off the coast of Vietnam during the Laotian crisis, eventually returning to Alameda in September 1961. In April 1962, Midway departed for another Far East tour. During this deployment, her aircraft tested the air defense systems of Japan, Korea, Okinawa, the Philippines, and Taiwan. The 100,000th arrested landing was made during this cruise which ended upon arrival at Alameda in October 1962. After a regular overhaul extending until April 1963, Midway continued its role as a research and development platform. On 13 June 1963, Lt. Cmdr. Randall K. Billins and Lt. Cmdr. Robert S. Chew Jr., of Naval Air Test Center Patuxent River, piloting an F-4A Phantom II and an F-8D Crusader respectively, made the first fully automatic carrier landings with production equipment on board Midway off the California coast. The landings, made "hands off" with both flight controls and throttles operated automatically by signals from the ship, highlighted almost 16 years of research and development. Midway made her fourteenth and sixth straight WESTPAC deployment in November 1963. Her most significant improvement was increased jet fighter capacity with the addition of Mach 2.2 F-4B Phantom IIs. She returned to Alameda in May 1964 to replace the number three elevator which had been destroyed and lost during extremely heavy seas. This incident happened while Midway was taking on supplies, using the elevator as the transfer point. A wave hit the elevator, lifting it and cocking it in the runners. The wave partially went over the elevator, nearly washing off the sailors who were moving supplies. A second wave hit the elevator, causing it to drop out the bottom of the runners, lifted it higher, and then dropped it, snapping the cables. The elevator fell behind the ship and eventually sunk. On February 27, 1965, an aircraft from the Midway was inadvertently shot down by a USS Preble (DLG-15) missile when it over flew a missile range during southern California maneuvers for the SILVER LANCE exercise. The pilot was killed. March 1965 marked a milestone in Midway's life as she left Alameda for her first combat cruise. From mid-April, while operating as part of Task Force 77 in the Tonkin Gulf, Midway's aircraft flew 11,900 combat missions over Vietnam. On 17 June 1965, while escorting a strike on the barracks at Gen Phu, North Vietnam, Cmdr. L. C. Page and Lt. J. E. Batson, flying F-4B Phantoms of VF-21, deployed aboard Midway, intercepted four MiG-17s. Cmdr. Page shot down one, scoring the first U.S. victory over MiGs in Vietnam. In the same engagement, Lt. Batson shot down a second MiG with an AIM-7 Sparrow missile. An unconfirmed report shows that debris from the destroyed aircraft was ingested by that MiG's wingman, possibly giving Lt. Batson a double kill. On 20 June, four A-1H Skyraiders from VA-25 were on a mission to locate downed pilots. The Skyraiders were carrying survival canisters and rocket canisters on the wing racks. A support ship detected two enemy aircraft coming from the north and warned the Skyraiders. The Skyraiders immediately dropped all ordnance, including fuel tanks, and went down to treetop level. Finding a small mountain, they started circling it, using it for cover. Two MiG-17s came down and made a pass at the lead Skyraider. The two Skyraiders behind the lead aircraft rolled up and fired at the MiGs with their 20mm cannons. Missing the first MiG, they hit the second with their guns, shooting it down. The pilots were Lt. C. B. Johnson and Ltjg. C. W. Hartman III and each were awarded a half credit for the kill. The nine-month combat cruise ended in November when Midway returned to Alameda. For their performance on this cruise, Midway and her air wing, Attack Carrier Air Wing Two, received the Navy Unit Commendation Medal and, in addition, Midway received the Battle Efficiency "E," marking her as the outstanding carrier in the Pacific Fleet. February 1966 saw Midway decommissioned once again in order to undergo the most extensive and complex modernization ever seen on a naval vessel. This upgrade would take four years to complete, but yielded a much more capable ship and made Midway operationally equivalent to the newest conventionally powered carriers. The flight deck was increased in surface area from 2.82 acres to 4.02 acres. The addition of three new deck-edge elevators could now lift 130,000 pounds compared with 74,000 pounds of her sister ships, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Coral Sea. Two powerful new catapults on the bow, three new arresting gear engines, and one barricade were installed and rearranged to accommodate a change of 13 degrees to the angle deck. The smaller waist catapult was removed since it was ineffective in launching the now heavier aircraft. Modern electronic systems were installed, a central chilled water air conditioning system replaced hundreds of individual units, and Midway became the first ship to have the aviation fueling system completely converted from aviation gas to JP-5. Delays, caused partially by the simultaneous construction of USS Horne and modernization of USS Chicago, and unscheduled repairs to the fire damaged USS Oriskany, drove the initial modernization estimate from 87 million dollars to 202 million dollars. 1970 was a year of preparation for Midway . Now capable of operating the most modern fleet aircraft, Midway was expected to deliver at least another 15 years of service life. After recommissioning on January 31 and underway in March, Builders Trials, Refresher Training and a Post Shakedown yard period helped bring the ship and crew to a peak of readiness. This was reflected in outstanding performances by the ship in early 1971 during the Interim Refresher Training, a fleet exercise, several Carrier Qualification periods and an Operational Readiness Inspection. On April 16, 1971, Midway began her sixteenth deployment 13,000 tons heavier than her original full load displacement. Arriving off the coast of South Vietnam with Air Wing Five embarked and a crew of 4,500, she relieved USS Hancock, CVA-19 on May 18. This was the beginning of single carrier operations, which lasted until the end of the month. During this time, the ship launched over 6,000 missions in support of allied operations in the Republic of Vietnam. Departing Yankee Station on June 5, she completed her final line period on October 31. Midway returned to Alameda on November 6th, after spending 146 consecutive days at sea. For this deployment, Midway was awarded the Meritorious Unit Commendation. Due to a sudden North Vietnamese invasion of South Vietnam, Midway left on April 10, 1972, for a third Vietnam deployment, seven weeks prior to her scheduled deployment date. On this deployment, Air Wing Five aircraft played an important role in the effort of U.S. forces to stop the flow of men and supplies into South Vietnam from the North. On May 11, aircraft from Midway along with those from USS Coral Sea, CVA-43, USS Kitty Hawk, CVA-63, and USS Constellation, CVA-64 continued laying minefields in ports of significance to the North Vietnamese: Thanh Hoa, Dong Hoi, Vinh, Hon Gai, Quang Khe, and Cam Pha, as well as other approaches to Haiphong. Ships that were in port in Haiphong had been advised that the mining would take place and that the mines would be armed 72 hours later. On August 7, an HC-7 Det 110 helicopter, flying from Midway, and aided by other planes from the carrier and USS Saratoga, CVA-60, conducted a search and rescue mission for a downed aviator in North Vietnam. The pilot of an A-7 aircraft from Saratoga had been downed by a surface-to-air missile about 20 miles inland, northwest of Vinh, on 6 August. The HC-7 helo flew over mountainous terrain to rescue the pilot. The rescue helicopter used its search light to assist in locating the downed aviator and, despite receiving heavy ground fire, was successful in retrieving him and returning to an LPD off the coast. This was the deepest penetration of a rescue helicopter into North Vietnam since 1968. HC-7 Det 110 continued its rescue missions and by the end of 1972 had successfully accomplished 48 rescues, 35 of which were under combat conditions. In October, an aircraft crash landed on Midway's deck. This aircraft ran into a group of parked aircraft and destroyed eight of them, killed 5 crewmen and injured 23 others. On January 12, 1973, an aircrew flying from Midway was credited with downing the last MiG of the war. Upon the signing of the cease-fire on January 15, Midway returned home. The Presidential Unit Citation was awarded to Midway and Carrier Air Wing Five for exceptional heroism for the period April 30, 1972 to February 09, 1973. This award was a rare presentation during the Vietnam War. During this time Midway was on her third Vietnam combat cruise and spent 208 line days on Yankee Station. CVW-5 had five air combat victories including the last downing of a MiG during the Vietnam hostilities. CVW-5 suffered 15 combat and five operational losses in this period. On September 11, 1973, Midway left Alameda on one of her most important voyages to date. Arriving in Yokosuka, Japan on October 5, 1973, Midway and Carrier Air Wing Five marked the first forward-deployment of a complete carrier task group in a Japanese port as the result of an accord arrived at on August 31, 1972 between the United States and Japan. Known as the Navy's Overseas Family Residency Program, Midway's crew and their families were now permanently home ported in Japan. In addition to the morale factor of dependents housed along with the crew in a foreign port, the move had strategic significance because it facilitated continuous positioning of three carriers in the Far East at a time when the economic situation demanded the reduction of carriers in the fleet. It also effectively reduced the deployment cycles of her sister Pacific Fleet carriers. In April 1975, Midway returned to the waters of Vietnam. On April 20, all fixed-wing aircraft of CVW-5 were flown off to NAS Cubi Point and ten USAF 40th Aerospace Rescue & Recovery Squadron H-53's were embarked. Midway, along with USS Coral Sea, CVA-43, USS Hancock, CVA-19, USS Enterprise, CVAN-65 and USS Okinawa, LPH-3, responded to the North Vietnamese overrunning two-thirds of South Vietnam. On April 29, Operation FREQUENT WIND was carried out by U.S. Seventh Fleet forces. As South Vietnam fell, the H-53's from Midway flew in excess of 40 sorties, shuttling 3,073 U.S. personnel and Vietnamese refugees out of Saigon in two days, bringing them onto the ship. Midway's HC-1 Det 2 Sea Kings then transported the evacuees to other ships. One South Vietnamese pilot flew a Cessna O-1 Bird Dog observation plane with his wife and five children out to Midway. He passed a note asking permission to land. The angle deck was cleared and the pilot made a good approach and landed with room to spare. The crew of Midway met him with cheers. For her role in the operation, Midway was awarded the Navy Unit Commendation and the Humanitarian Service Medal. Immediately following Operation FREQUENT WIND, Midway steamed south into the Gulf of Siam to Thailand and brought aboard over 100 American built aircraft preventing them from falling into communist hands. When they were aboard, the ship steamed at high speed to Guam, where the planes were offloaded by crane in record time. After the offload in Guam and a brief stop in Subic Bay, Midway entered the Indian Ocean and operated there from October until the end of November. On November 25, 1975, during post "MIDLINK" exercises, a fatal accident occurred. While attempting to land on the Midway, an aircraft struck the ramp, bolted, impacted the barricade, and struck another aircraft. Flying debris injured two crewmembers. Midway returned to Yokosuka in time to celebrate the 1975 Christmas holiday. In June 1976, Midway participated in Exercise TEAM SPIRIT, an exercise in intense electronic warfare and bombing missions over South Korea. In August 1976, a Navy task force headed by Midway made a show of force off the coast of Korea in response to an unprovoked attack on two U.S. Army officers who were killed by North Korean guards on August 18. Midway's response was in support of a U.S. demonstration of military concern vis-à-vis North Korea. 1977 saw Midway participating in MIDLINK '77, a two-day exercise hosted by the Iranian Navy, and included representatives of Pakistan, Turkey, and the United Kingdom. February 1978 saw Midway joining in with the JMSDF (Japanese Maritime Self-Defense Force) for the largest combined exercise to that date. On May 31, 1978, while docked in Yokosuka, Japan, a fire which originated in the exhaust ventilation system, quickly spread through the 3A boiler uptakes on the second deck, and terminated in the main uptake space. The cause of the fire was later thought to be from welding in a vent system containing a fine oil mist which ignited and spread. TEAM SPIRIT '79, exercised in the East China Sea and Sea of Japan, was highlighted by numerous encounters with Russian aircraft. Midway relieved USS Constellation, CV-64 as the Indian Ocean contingency carrier on April 16, 1979. Midway and her escort ships continued a significant American naval presence in the oil-producing region of the Arabian Sea and Persian Gulf. On August 09, while berthed in Yokosuka, Japan, a fire, caused by a broken acetylene line, broke out killing one worker and injuring 17 sailors. Also in August, the Vice President of the United States boarded Midway in Hong Kong for a courtesy visit. On November 18, she arrived in the northern part of the Arabian Sea in connection with the continuing hostage crisis in Iran. Militant followers of the Ayatollah Khomeini, who had come to power following the overthrow of the Shah, seized the U.S. Embassy in Tehran on November 4 and held 63 U.S. citizens hostage. Midway was joined on November 21 by USS Kitty Hawk, CV-63, and both carriers, along with their escort ships, were joined by USS Nimitz, CVN-68 and her escorts on January 22, 1980. Midway was relieved by USS Coral Sea, CV-43 on February 5, 1980. Following a period in Yokosuka, Midway was again on duty on May 30, 1980, this time relieving USS Coral Sea on standby south of the Cheju-Do Islands in the Sea of Japan following the potential of civil unrest in the Republic of Korea. On July 29, Midway collided with the Panamanian merchant ship Cactus while transiting the passage between Palawan Island of the Philippines and the coast of Northern Borneo 450 nautical miles southwest of Subic Bay enroute to Singapore. While Midway sustained no serious damage, two sailors working in the liquid oxygen plant were killed, three were injured, and three F-4 Phantom aircraft parked on the flight deck were damaged. On August 17, Midway relieved USS Constellation, CV-64 to begin another Indian Ocean deployment and to complement the USS Dwight D. Eisenhower, CVN-69 task group still on contingency duty in the Arabian Sea. Midway spent a total of 118 days in the Indian Ocean during 1980. On March 16, 1981, an A-6 Intruder from VA-115 aboard Midway sighted a downed civilian helicopter in the South China Sea. Midway immediately dispatched helicopters from HC-1 Det 2 to the scene. All 17 people aboard the downed helicopter were rescued and brought aboard the carrier. The chartered civilian helicopter was also plucked out of the water and lifted to Midway's flight deck. In September 1981, the Chief of Naval Operations kicked off a tour of Far East Naval Units when he visited Midway while in port Yokosuka. In December, 1983, Midway deployed to the North Arabian Sea and set a record of 111 continuous days of operations. From 1976 until 1983, Midway made six Indian Ocean cruises accounting for 338 days. She made 28 port calls in Subic Bay for 167 days, nine port calls in Hong Kong for 40 days, seven port calls in Pusan, Korea for 32 days, seven port calls in Sasebo, Japan for 28 days, three port calls in Perth, Australia for 16 days, three port calls in Mombassa, Kenya for 14 days, three port calls in Singapore for 11 days, one port call in Karachi, Pakistan for three days, and one port call in Bandar Abbas, Iran for two days. Perhaps it was the exotic nature of Midway's liberty ports that contributed to the "Midway Magic". After several years of dependable overseas service, on December 2, 1984, Midway and her crew were awarded their second Meritorious Unit Commendation, for service rendered from July 27, 1982, until May 1, 1984. On March 23, 1986, Midway collided with a Korean fishing boat in the Yellow Sea. The boat was hit with elevator number one, damaging it but leaving the carrier unscathed. (I have received a report that the boat was North Korean instead of South Korean, as many histories tell it. The basis behind this is that Midway could not send the crew home to the North and were reluctant to give them to the South, which was their enemy.) On March 25, the final fleet carrier launchings of an A-7 Corsair II and an F-4S Phantom II took place off Midway during flight operations in the East China Sea. The Corsairs and Phantoms were being replaced by the new F/A-18 Hornets. On March 31, Midway moored to Dry Dock 6 at Yokosuka Naval Base to begin the "most ambitious work package in its 40-year history." EISRA-86 (Extended Incremental Selected Repair Availability) condensed the workload of a major stateside carrier overhaul from the usual 12-14 months, into an eight-month modernization. This included the addition of the catapult flush deck nose gear launch system, the additions of MK7 MOD1 jet blast deflectors, restack and rereeve of arresting gear engines, installation of larger rudders, the addition of new fire main system valves and pumps, new air traffic consoles, a new viable anti-submarine warfare capability, the construction of intermediate maintenance avionics shops to support the F/A-18 aircraft, and the removal of over 47 tons of unusable cable. Blisters were also built and mounted to the sides of Midway. With this monumental task being completed three days ahead of schedule, the first Air Wing Five F/A-18 Hornet trapped aboard Midway on November 28, 1986. On January 9, 1987, Midway was reactivated with Battle Group ALFA and departed Yokosuka. On May 22, while enroute to Eastern Australia, Midway trapped a VMA-331 AV-8 Harrier operating off USS Belleau Wood, LHA-3. These Harrier operations were the first in Midway's history. On this cruise, Midway was the first U.S. Navy carrier to visit Sydney, Australia since 1972. Over 7,000 visitors toured the ship during the 10 day port call. On July 10, the launch of a VFA-195 Hornet marked the 76,000th catapult shot from the port catapult since Midway's recommissioning in 1970. On November 14, the EA-3B "Whale" made its last run from the deck of Midway. The Whale was replaced by a C-2 Greyhound from VRC-50, which embarked aboard Midway on November 9 for an Indian Ocean deployment. During 1987 and 1988, the ship deployed to the Indian Ocean as part of Operation ERNEST WILL, earning the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal. At the time of her refit in 1986, hull bulges had to be added to create additional buoyancy to compensate for the increased tonnage. However these ungainly appendages seriously effected Midway's stability. During sea trials in 1986, excessive rolls in moderate seas took green water over her flight deck, thereby hampering flight operations. A 1988 Senate committee, outraged by the inept modifications carried out in the shipyard, voted to retire Midway early as a cost-saving measure. However, after considerable Navy lobbying the committee was overruled, with $138 million voted to remedy her stability dilemma. On March 13, 1989, Midway participated in Exercise TEAM SPIRIT in the waters off South Korea for the second consecutive year. From June 7-8, Midway was put on standby after the massacre in Tiananmen Square for possible evacuation of American citizens from the People's Republic of China. Midway's dependability for rapid response was reaffirmed on August 16, 1989 as she celebrated her 44th year of service by deploying again to the Indian Ocean. On August 28, Midway participated in Exercise THALAY, a three day exercise with Royal Thai Navy ships. On September 9, Midway logged its 200,000th catapult shot since being recommissioned in 1972. On September 30, an F/A-18 Hornet aircraft from the Midway mistakenly dropped a 500-pound bomb on the deck of the USS Reeves, CG-24, during training exercises in the Indian Ocean 32 miles south of Diego Garcia, creating a five-foot hole in the bow, sparking a small fire, and injuring five sailors. On November 10, Midway became the first Navy carrier to pull pier side in Fremantle, Australia. While returning from this cruise, Midway participated in Operation CLASSIC RESOLVE, supporting the Philippine government of President Corazon Aquino against a coup attempt. The operation, run in conjunction with the Air Force and assisted by the USS Enterprise (CVN-65) lasted from December 2 to December 9. For this action, she earned another Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal. 1989 and 1990 saw extensive sea time, including deployments to the Northern Arabian Sea and trips to Australia, Diego Garcia, Hong Kong, Kenya, Korea, Philippines, Thailand, and Singapore. From 1973 to 1991, Midway's history is hallmarked by Indian Ocean cruises and port calls at some of the most exotic Far East ports. Being America's first forward deployed ship, Midway remained on the "knife's edge" of readiness and maintained a highly visible presence in the region in support of U.S. policy. Midway no longer went in for overhauls, rather her upkeep was managed through periods of EISRA (Extended Incremental Ship's Restricted Availability). These brief periods allowed Midway to be serviced, but also available at any time. In the post-Vietnam era prior to 1990, Midway earned four Battle Efficiency Ribbons, the Navy and Marine Corps Expeditionary Medal, three Armed Forces Expeditionary Medals, the Humanitarian Service Medal and two Meritorious Unit Commendations. Midway's last two years in commissioned service would prove to be perhaps her most historic. In 1990, while celebrating 45 years of service, Midway received official announcement on her decommissioning. An announcement in February confirmed that she was scheduled to decommission in 1991. Even with this announcement, Midway continued to maintain her seagoing reputation by being underway more than most other aircraft carriers. With her unique combination of modernized strength and years of experience, she strived to maintain peace and stability in the Western Pacific. Disaster struck the Midway on June 20, 1990. While conducting routine flight operations approximately 125 nautical miles northeast of Japan, the ship was badly damaged by two onboard explosions. These explosions led to a fire that raged more than ten hours. In addition to damage to the ship's hull, three crew members died and eight others were seriously injured in the line of duty. All 11 crewmen belonged to an elite fire-fighting team known as the Flying Squad. When Midway entered Yokosuka Harbor the next day, 12 Japanese media helicopters flew in circles and hovered about 150 feet above the flight deck. Three bus loads of reporters were waiting on the pier. About 30 minutes after Midway cast its first line, more than 100 international print and electronic journalists charged over the brow to cover the event. The news media made a major issue out of the incident, as it happened amid other military accidents. It was thought that the accident would lead to the ship's immediate retirement due to her age. Despite the announced decommissioning and the fire, Midway's role as a potent member of the U.S. Naval forces was again reaffirmed when she departed Yokosuka, Japan on October 2, 1990 in support of Operation DESERT SHIELD. On November 2, 1990, MIDWAY arrived on station in the North Arabian Sea, relieving USS Independence, CV-62. For the DESERT SHIELD portion of the campaign, Midway was the only carrier in the Persian Gulf. She was the first carrier to operate extensively and for prolonged periods within the mined waters of the Gulf itself. On November 15, she participated in Operation IMMINENT THUNDER, an eight-day combined amphibious landing exercise in northeastern Saudi Arabia, which involved about 1,000 U.S. Marines, 16 warships, and more than 1,100 aircraft. Midway also made the first Persian Gulf port call for an aircraft carrier when she visited Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates for Christmas of 1990. Midway was also the flagship of the Persian Gulf Battle Force Commander, Rear Admiral Daniel P. March (Commander Task Force 154). Admiral March was the operational commander for all coalition naval forces within the Persian Gulf. Meanwhile, the United Nations set an ultimatum deadline of January 15,1991 for Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait. After steaming for two and a half months in the North Arabian Sea, Operation DESERT STORM, the fight to liberate Kuwait, began on January 17, 1991. Aircraft from Midway flew the initial air strikes of Operation DESERT STORM. An A-6E Intruder from the "Nighthawks" of VA-185 flying from Midway became the first carrier-based aircraft "over the beach" during that first strike. During the conflict, Midway's aircraft flew 3,339 combat sorties, an average of 121 per day during the war. Midway aircraft dropped 4,057,520 pounds of ordnance on targets in Iraq and occupied Kuwait. The jet aircraft aboard Midway were not alone in taking the fight to the Iraqis. HS-12 conducted two Combat Rescues, rescued and captured a total of 25 Iraqi sailors, destroyed nine mines, and captured the first piece of Kuwaiti soil - a small island (the only property captured or liberated by the Navy). HS-12 also recovered the body of an Iraqi Naval Officer who had apparently been killed by his crew. At the end of the war, HS-12 chased down an escaping speed boat and forced it ashore on another island. The four captured occupants turned out to be members of the Iraqi Secret Police. After 43 days of combat, Kuwait had been liberated with a resounding defeat of Iraqi forces. Operation DESERT STORM ended at midnight on February 27, 1991. Midway was the only one of the four carriers operating in the Persian Gulf to lose no aircraft or personnel. Midway departed the Persian Gulf on March 10 and returned to Yokosuka, Japan. For her actions during Operations DESERT SHIELD and DESERT STORM, Midway again received the Battle Efficiency Award and the Navy Unit Commendation. Midway's versatility was again demonstrated in June of 1991 with her participation in Operation FIERY VIGIL. On June 16, Midway was given one day's notice to sortie from her berth in Yokosuka, Japan and steam at high speed for Subic Bay Naval Base in the Philippines to assist with the evacuation of military personnel and their families following the volcanic eruption of Mt. Pinatubo. Prior to departing, Midway crewmen worked through the night loading enough food and supplies to provide for 5,000 people for two weeks. Items included 1,100 cots, pet food, and baby diapers and bottles. Within 24 hours of receiving notice of the emergency, Midway was underway with the helicopters of HS-12 as the sole representative of Air Wing Five embarked. Midway made her best speed toward Subic Bay, slowing briefly near Okinawa to embark six helicopters from HMH-772 and a contingent of Marines. The ship arrived at Subic Bay June 21 and brought aboard 1,823 evacuees, almost all of them Air Force personnel leaving Clark Air Base. Additionally, Midway brought aboard 23 cats, 68 dogs, and one lizard, pets of the evacuees. Midway's guests were greeted with a clean bed, a hot shower, and a steak dinner, their first hot meal in more than a week. In a trip which included a high-speed night transit of the Van Diemen Passage, Midway took the evacuees to the island of Cebu in the Philippines. On arrival, HS-12 and HMH-772 flew them to Mactan International Airport. There, the evacuees boarded Air Force transport planes for flights that would eventually take them to the United States. In August 1991, Midway departed Yokosuka, Japan for the last time, steaming towards her first United States port call in almost 18 years. She had been the first carrier to be "forward deployed" in a foreign country, sailing for 17 years out of Yokosuka, Japan. Arriving in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, Midway turned over the duty as the "Tip of the Sword" to USS Independence, CV-62. Independence would be replacing Midway as the forward deployed carrier in Yokosuka, Japan. This turnover included swapping CVW-5 for CVW-14, the first air wing change for Midway in 20 years. After leaving Hawaii, Midway made a brief visit to Seattle, Washington, where more than 50,000 people visited the ship during a three-day open house. On September 14, 1991, Midway arrived at her final homeport, Naval Air Station North Island in San Diego, California. Her crew then began the tremendous task of preparing the ship for decommissioning and preservation as part of the Ready Reserve Fleet. As part of her decommissioning preparation, the Navy sent out a Board of Inspection and Survey team to assess the ship's material condition and evaluate her capabilities. To perform this inspection, the ship got underway for one last time on September 24, 1991. On this day, the ship successfully completed a rigorous series of tests, including full-power sea trials. Midway trapped and launched her last aircraft that day, with the honor falling to Commander, Carrier Air Wing Fourteen, Captain Patrick Moneymaker, flying an F/A-18 Hornet. At the completion of the day's events, Midway headed for home at 32 knots. Despite her age and imminent decommissioning, the inspection team found Midway fully operational and fit for continued service, a testimonial to the men who maintained the ship throughout her many years. At the end of her career, Midway's last embarked flag officer, Rear Admiral Joseph W. Prueher noted, Midway had "sprinted across the finish line." Midway was decommissioned for the last time at North Island Naval Air Station in San Diego, California on April 11, 1992. She was stricken from the Navy List on March 17, 1997 and was stored at the Navy Inactive Ship Maintenance Facility, Bremerton, Washington. On September 30, 2003, a long awaited event happened... after eleven years, Midway was finally underway again! Although only under tow by the Foss Maritime Company's tugs Lauren Foss and Lindsey Foss, she was heading back out to sea for another voyage. With the Lindsey Foss only assisting during the harbor transit, the Lauren Foss continued towing Midway on her journey to Oakland, California. October 07, 2003 saw Midway arriving at the Charles P. Howard Terminal in Oakland, California. Restoration work was performed before Midway was again taken under tow on December 31. The Foss Maritime Company's Corbin Foss towed Midway down the coast of California, arriving in San Diego Bay on January 05, 2004. Midway was temporarily berthed at NAS North Island to load restored aircraft and also add ballast and equipment in preparation for her move across the bay to Navy Pier. Midway's final journey occurred on January 10, 2004. Several hundred guests were aboard as she was towed across San Diego Bay to her new home at Navy Pier. With much celebration and ceremony, Midway was berthed at Navy Pier, where she officially opened as the San Diego Aircraft Carrier Museum on June 07, 2004. Once again, Midway's popularity showed as 3,058 visitors went aboard on opening day. Conceived and built during the desperate days of World War II, the carriers of the Midway class carried a crew of 4,500 and up to 70 aircraft. The 1,000 foot-long Midway was once the largest carrier afloat, growing from 45,000 tons in 1945 to 74,000 tons in 1991. However, she had a displacement about two-thirds that of contemporary nuclear-powered flattops. When operating at sea the ship was refueled every three days, burning approximately 100,000 gallons of oil a day. When first built, the Midway's bow was open to the sea, and was enclosed in 1957 as part of a major overhaul. The ability to adapt to new technologies, systems, platforms, and operational needs is nowhere better exemplified than in the design and 50-year operational history of the USS Midway. Designed during World War II, in 1945 this "flattop" initially operated piston-driven propeller aircraft, yet returned from her last deployment in 1991 with the Navy's most modern, multipurpose strike-fighters. Her original axial-deck design was modified to an angled-deck layout, her original hydraulic catapults were replaced with more powerful steam catapults, and the most basic electronics replaced by advanced sensors and communications equipment. USS Midway Aircraft Carrier CV-41 Museum-San Diego Ca.

background; USS Midway (CV-41) foreground; a salute to Bob Hope Design notes: Located in a grove of coral trees atop a landscaped mound with broad curving steps, the National Salute to Bob Hope and the Military features a grouping of sixteen larger than life-size bronze figures in a 48-foot diameter circular plaza. The figures represent a typical road show with Bob entertaining troops near the front. The focal point is a bronze of Bob Hope himself by renowned sculptor Eugene Daub. Fifteen additional sculptures form an eternal audience representing men and women of the five branches of the U.S. military services. Attractive landscaping and lighting showcase the National Salute for visitors day and night, by land and water. About the Sculptures: The bronze figures are sculpted in military uniforms authentic to the various eras of Bob’s career from World War II through the Korean War, Vietnam War, Cold War, and the first Persian Gulf War. The fifteen military bronze figures were designed and fabricated by the Daub Firman Hendrickson Group and the Steven Whyte Studio. A brief description of each follows: World War II Paratrooper The 101st division (the Screaming Eagles) was activated on 15 August 1942 at Camp Claiborne, Louisiana on 19 August 1942. During World War II, the Pathfinders of the 101st Airborne Division led the way on D-Day in the night drop prior to the invasion. On 2 August 1944, the division became part of the First Allied Airborne Army. As part of this formation it took part in Operation Market Garden in the Netherlands. During the Battle of the Bulge the 101st defended the vital road junction of Bastogne. Brigadier General Anthony McAuliffe replied to the demand for surrender: “To the German Commander: NUTS! —The American Commander.” (Some are convinced that what he actually wrote was less polite.) The division held its ground. This figure is of a sergeant in the 101st Airborne paratroopers, (not a pathfinder), who participated in the Normandy invasion. Korean War Infantryman We have chosen the 45th infantry division for this figure of a private for several reasons relating to the desire to honor Native American veterans. It was formed from citizen soldiers in the Southwestern U.S. It had at least two Native American Medal of Honor winners in the Korean War. Its insignia is the Native American thunderbird, and it is known as the Thunderbird division. The insignia is a strong clue for the viewing public the soldier may be Native American. Native Americans volunteered for service in Korea in higher proportion than any other identifiable ethnic group. Gulf War Soldier in Desert Storm Forty thousand women were deployed in Operation Desert Storm. Many, including those in the 82nd Airborne, were in combat and 16 were killed. This marks a change in American military history were many mothers with young children serve in the armed forces. The Desert Storm Gulf War soldier is an African American 2nd Lieutenant in the 82nd Airborne. The cast on her right leg emphasizes her combat role, and also serves to honor all wounded veterans. She has a notebook on her lap in anticipation of receiving an autograph from Bob Hope. Korean War Sailor More than 265,000 navy personnel served in Korea during the war. The U.S. Navy eliminated the North Korean navy, prevented and destroyed enemy troop landings, performed on-land reconnaissance, carried out allied troop landings, evacuated over 100,000 allied troops at Hungnam, bombarded shore positions, and launched thousands of aerial sorties. The Korean War sailor is a Seaman 1st Class, who will be holding one of the handles of the Gulf War soldier’s wheelchair. He is in his dress blues. World War II Fighter Pilot The World War II fighter pilot is a captain in the Army Air Force, with the 332nd Fighter Group (originally the 99th Fighter Squadron)—the Redtails—within the 15th Air Force. This group is famous for two reasons: 1) it is the only fighter escort group to lose no bombers to enemy fighters, and 2) it was composed entirely of African Americans. The 332nd shot down 111 German fighters, including at least two Me-262 jets, and earned 150 Distinguished Flying Crosses. They were also known as the Tuskegee Airmen because they were trained at Tuskegee Army Air Field in Tuskegee, Alabama. In 1949, pilots from the 332nd Fighter Group took first place in the Air Force National Fighter Gunnery Meet at Las Vegas Air Force Base, Nevada. Vietnam War Artilleryman This soldier is a private in an artillery unit from the Vietnam War. He is holding a home-made sign which reads “Go Bob!” He is wearing a T-shirt with no insignia, with his dog tags outside his shirt. US artillery in Vietnam was organized under I Field Force, II Field Force and XXIV Corps Artillery, consisting of 44 battalions in total. These battalions played a significant role in supporting American and allied infantry. Vietnam War Air Force Mechanic The mechanic is a Hispanic technical sergeant in the Air Force in the Vietnam War, seated on a wooden ammo box. A little remembered episode is that the first Air Force mechanics in Vietnam were sent in support of the French for seven months in 1954, in a deployment that grew to nearly 500 men. Their base at Do Son was under frequent attack, and the Viet Minh captured 5 men. World War II Marine Corps Sergeant The sculpture is of a patient from the 44th Field Hospital, one of the largest fully equipped hospitals in the Philippines during World War II. The Medical Statistics Division of the Office of the Surgeon General has estimated that close to 15,000 men in the U.S. Army, including Army Air Forces, suffered amputations during the period from 1 January 1942 to 31 March 1946. The maximum census reported by these amputation centers for any one month was 9,240 in June 1945. The figure is depicted in his issue blue robe, freshly pinned with the Purple Heart. “Bedside presentations” of this award, which would typically entail a general entering a hospital with a box of Purple Hearts, pinning them on the pillows of wounded service members, and then departing with no official records kept of the visit or the award. Service members themselves could complicate the issue by leaving hospitals unofficially, returning to their units. In such cases, even if a service member had received actual wounds in combat, the award of the Purple Heart might never be recorded in official records. Korean War Marine This sculpture of a Korean War Marine is of an African-American Marine shown in the standard issue cold-weather uniform required by the harsh Korean winter. Holding a sign marked “Thanks for the Memory” he communicates the support and appreciation of U.S. troops for Bob Hope and his efforts with the USO. African-American servicemen distinguished themselves in combat during the ground battles with the North Korean army and in the air war over Korea. The Korean War is considered by many as the turning point in the acceptance of African-Americans as proven members of the U.S. military. Following the Korean War, the Army abolished the 300 segregated all-black units that had previously existed and integrated the more than 300,000 African-Americans into the previously all-white units. World War II Navy Machinist Mate This figure is a portrait of a Machinist Mate, Third Class Petty Officer (PO3) from the USS Lark. The subject is depicted from the year 1944 as he would have appeared while stationed at Mios Woendi “Windy Island” in the South Pacific. The sculpture represents a sailor who served during the Battle of Leyte Gulf, which was fought in the seas around the Philippines following the initial landings and return of U.S. forces to these islands in October 1944. Consisting of four major air-sea battles fought over several days, including Taffy 3’s famous action in the Battle off Samar on 25 October, the Battle of Leyte Gulf was the greatest naval battle in history. In a last and desperate gamble to halt the advance of allied forces in the Pacific, most of the remaining major units of the still-formidable Imperial Japanese Navy were sent forth into this battle. In the Sibuyan Sea, off Cape Engaño, in Surigao Strait and off the island of Samar, U.S. sailors and airmen met, repulsed and defeated the Japanese fleet in this the last great naval battle between opposing fleets in World War II. The figure is depicted standing on a box in dungarees that were modeled from original period clothing acquired from the family of a World War II veteran. Further refinement to the uniform was based on information provided through oral history given by Hal Tinker, retired US Navy. The figure is a Caucasian male of approximately 22 years of age. The age of the sailor is based on footage of members of the audience at the Mios Woendi performance by Bob Hope featured on The Best of Bob Hope: The Ultimate Collection, “Bob Goes to War”. Coast Guard Squadron One The uncharted nature of the waters surrounding Vietnam made the members of the U.S. Coast Guard an invaluable component in military efforts in the region. Crewmen assisted in patrols, rescues, and topography. Early on in the conflict, it was determined that the Coast Guard would provide seventeen 82-foot patrol boats. On 29 April 1965, the formation of Coast Guard Squadron One was announced. On 6 May, the Coast Guard ordered the deployment of the seventeen patrol boats and only twelve days later they were loaded on merchant vessels in New York, Norfolk, New Orleans, Galveston, San Pedro, San Francisco and Seattle. At Coast Guard Base Alameda, Coast Guard Squadron One was formed. Initially, 47 officers and 198 enlisted were assigned to the newly formed Squadron One. The 82-footer’s main job was choking off the enemy’s sea-borne supplies. The Squadron would become the backbone of the Coast Guard’s fleet. Hispanics played a valuable role in the Vietnam war and accounted for 25 percent of the casualties. Their contributions have been particularly linked to the Coast Guard where a Hispanic crewman was awarded a Purple Heart. Gulf War Air Force Staff Sergeant The sculpture features an Asian-American female of approximately 22 years of age, a Staff Sergeant from the Communications Squad stationed in Kuwait City in 1990. Age of the figure was established from oral history from a member of the U.S. Air Force who had served in Kuwait. Sixteen percent of veterans from Desert Storm are women, and by 1993 over 50,000 Asian-Americans were in uniform. The figure is shown standing wearing a standard issue Battle Dress Uniform (BDU) with standard-issue desert combat boots. Reference for the uniform was provided by a Desert Storm veteran who loaned the uniform she had worn while serving in the Gulf to the artist. World War II Navy Pilot Lieutenant This World War II pilot is a Lieutenant in the Navy, fighting in the conflict in the Pacific. Thirty years after the Navy had acquired its first airplane and only 19 years after it had acquired its first aircraft carrier, naval aviation faced the supreme test of war. At the beginning of the war the Navy and Marine Corps air arms could muster only seven large and one small aircraft carriers, 5 patrol wings and 2 Marine aircraft wings, 5,900 pilots and 21,678 enlisted men, 5,233 aircraft of all types including trainers, and a few advanced air bases. World War II marked the first time in history naval engagements were fought entirely in the air without opposing surface forces sighting each other. In the course of the war, Navy and Marine pilots destroyed over 15,000 enemy aircraft in the air and on the ground, sank 174 Japanese warships, including 13 submarines, totaling 746,000 tons, sank 447 Japanese merchant ships totaling 1,600,000 tons and, in the Atlantic, destroyed 63 German U-boats. The pilot in this figure is seen with his Mae West in a light summer flight suit worn to protect against the heat and humidity. He is shown wearing non-standard boots based on oral histories from Navy pilots who explained that the pilots often wore different boots out of fear that the standard-issue foot wear would become water logged in the event of a sea landing. Vietnam War Navy Medic This figure is a Hospital Corpsman Third Class, U.S. Navy, from Quang Nam Province from 1968. With the escalation of the Vietnam conflict between 1963 and 1975, Hospital Corpsman were called to serve in Southeast Asia. They served in Marine Corps and Navy Air/Ground Forces, Naval Support Activity Hospitals, off the coast of North Vietnam, in Cambodia and in Thailand. They performed emergency treatment in all kinds of combat conditions. They were assigned to small medical teams that provided care and health advice to Vietnamese civilians. Some were assigned as medical advisors to Vietnamese military units, which required that they live in small, poorly defended villages. Hospital Corpsman truly felt the brunt of the Vietnam conflict. Six hundred twenty were killed or mortally wounded and another 3,353 were wounded in action. Awards for gallantry and intrepidity in action included 3 Congressional Medals of Honor, 29 Navy Crosses, 127 Silver Stars, 2 Legions of Merit, 290 Bronze Stars and 4,563 Purple Hearts. The subject’s uniform is completed with standard-issue drawstring pants, based on reference photographs in U.S. Military Operations 1945-1985 by Kenneth Anderson and combat boots, based on reference photographs from Left at the Wall: Artifacts from the Vietnam Veterans Memorial. He is posed sitting on top of an ammunition box suggesting the often-makeshift nature of Hope’s impromptu stages. He is wearing no shirt reflecting the more casual nature of the USO performances in Vietnam. The figure’s dog tags are thrown around his back to allow him to clap. World War II Army Nurse More than 59,000 American nurses served in the Army Nurse Corps during World War II. During the conflict, nurses worked closer to the front lines than they ever had before. Within the “chain of evacuation” established by the Army Medical Department during the war, nurses served under fire in field hospitals and evacuation hospitals, on hospital trains and hospital ships, and as flight nurses on medical transport planes. In all, more than 200 Army Nurses lost their lives during World War II. The skill and dedication of these nurses is credited for the extremely low post-injury mortality rate among American military forces in every theater of the war. Army nurses all served as officers and were slightly older than some of the soldiers they tended. This figure is seen in her regulation uniform. She is sketching a character of Bob Hope with a love heart. Site notes: The National Salute site is at the northwest corner (far left in photo) of the G Street Mole. This is in proximity to other military related monuments in the neighborhood including the “Homecoming” sculpture, the “Aircraft Carrier Memorial” obelisk, the “Battle of Leyte Gulf” monument, and the USS San Diego (CL-53) Memorial. The retired aircraft carrier U.S.S. Midway, now a popular naval aviation museum and venue for public events, is moored permanently adjacent to the mole and forms an appropriate naval backdrop for the National Salute to Bob Hope and the Military. Site notes: The National Salute site is at the northwest corner (far left in photo) of the G Street Mole. This is in proximity to other military related monuments in the neighborhood including the “Homecoming” sculpture, the “Aircraft Carrier Memorial” obelisk, the “Battle of Leyte Gulf” monument, and the USS San Diego (CL-53) Memorial. The retired aircraft carrier U.S.S. Midway, now a popular naval aviation museum and venue for public events, is moored permanently adjacent to the mole and forms an appropriate naval backdrop for the National Salute to Bob Hope and the Military. About the sponsors: The inspiration and planning for the National Salute to Bob Hope and the Military was provide by a veteran’s group called Task Unit 77.4.3/Taffy 3 (“Taffy III” for short.) The common bond of these World War II Navy men is that they served bravely on warships of Task Unit 77.4.3 that were sunk during the famous Battle off Samar during the Battle for Leyte Gulf on October 25, 1944. (“Taffy III” was the call sign of this task unit.) In recent years, these men have devoted their efforts toward raising awareness and money for monuments to preserve the history and honor the veterans of this era. The nearby Battle of Leyte Gulf Memorial is an earlier project funded and built on Port tidelands by Taffy III. The National Salute to Bob Hope and the Military is the latest and most ambitious Taffy 3 commemorative project. The project was built with donated funds.

Burma, officially the Union of Myanmar, is the largest country by geographical area in Indochina (mainland Southeast Asia). The country is bordered by China on the north-east, Laos on the east, Thailand on the south-east, Bangladesh on the west, India on the north-west and the Bay of Bengal to the south-west with the Andaman Sea defining its southern periphery. One-third of Burma's total perimeter, 1,930 kilometres (1,199 mi), forms an uninterrupted coastline. The country's culture, heavily influenced by neighbours, is based on Theravada Buddhism intertwined with local elements. Burma's diverse population has played a major role in defining its politics, history and demographics in modern times, and the country continues to struggle to mend its ethnic tensions. The military has dominated government since General Ne Win led a coup in 1962 that toppled the civilian government of U Nu. Burma remains under the tight control of the military-led State Peace and Development Council. History Please go to en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Burma Geography Please go to en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Burma Other info Oficial name: മ്യാന്മാര് Pyi-daung-zu Myan-ma Naing-ngan-daw Establishment: Pagan Kingdom 849-1287 - Toungoo Dynasty 1486-1752 - Konbaung Dynasty 1753-1885 - Independence from the United Kingdom 4 January 1948 Area: 676.577km2 Inhabitants: 50.104.000 Language: Achang [acn] 1,700 in Myanmar (1983). West of the Irrawaddy River in Katha District, near Banmauk, scattered among the Lashi. Along the China border. Alternate names: Anchan, Chung, Atsang, Acang, Ngac'ang, Ngachang, Ngochang, Mönghsa, Tai Sa'. Dialects: Maingtha. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Burmish, Northern More information. Akha [ahk] 200,000 in Myanmar (1991 UBS). Population total all countries: 449,261. Eastern part of Kengtung Shan State. Also spoken in China, Laos, Thailand, Viet Nam. Alternate names: Kaw, Ekaw, Ko, Aka, Ikaw, Ak'a, Ahka, Khako, Kha Ko, Khao Kha Ko, Ikor, Aini, Yani. Dialects: Ako, Asong. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Loloish, Southern, Akha, Hani, Ha-Ya More information. Anal [anm] Also possibly in Bangladesh. Alternate names: Namfau. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Northern More information. Anu [anl] 700. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Unclassified More information. Arakanese [mhv] 730,000 in Myanmar (2001 Johnstone and Mandryk). Population total all countries: 954,000. Southwest, Arakan Province. Also possibly in China. Also spoken in Bangladesh, India. Alternate names: Maghi, Morma, Yakan, Yakhaing, Rakhain, Mogh, Magh, Marma, Mash, Rakhine. Dialects: One of the better known varieties of nonstandard Burmese with profound pronunciation and vocabulary differences from Burmese. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Burmish, Southern More information. Blang [blr] 12,000 in Myanmar (1994). Eastern Shan State, Mong Yang area, and Kengtung. Alternate names: Bulang, Pulang, Pula, Kawa, K'ala, Plang, Kontoi. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Western Palaungic, Waic, Bulang More information. Burmese [mya] 32,000,000 in Myanmar (2000 D. Bradley). Population total all countries: 32,301,581. South, central, and adjacent areas. Also spoken in Bangladesh, Malaysia, Thailand, USA. Alternate names: Bama, Bamachaka, Myen, Myanmar. Dialects: Merguese (Mergui, Beik), Yaw, Danu (Taruw), Burmese, Palaw. There are diglossic high and low varieties. The preferred variety is spoken in Mandalay. Merguese (250,000 speakers), Danu (100,000 speakers), and Yaw (20,000) may be separate languages. They are distinct varieties (1997 D. Bradley). Speakers in Bangladesh speak Bomang, not Standard Burmese. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Burmish, Southern More information. Chak [ckh] 20,000 in Myanmar (2002). Population total all countries: 25,500. Most in Arakan Blue Mountains, Myanmar. Also spoken in Bangladesh. Classification: Unclassified More information. Chaungtha [ccq] 121,700 (1983). Dialects: Related to Burmese. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Burmish, Southern More information. Chin, Asho [csh] 10,000 in Myanmar (1991 UBS). Population total all countries: 11,422. Irrawaddy River, lowlands. Also spoken in Bangladesh. Alternate names: Qin, Asho, Ashu, Shoa, Sho, Khyang, Kyang. Dialects: Thayetmyo (Thayetmo), Minbu, Lemyo, Khyang. Close to Saingbaung Chin. Also related to Shendu and Chinbon. Lemyo, Thayetmo, Minbu, and Khyang may be separate languages. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Southern, Sho More information. Chin, Bawm [bgr] 3,581 in Myanmar (2000 WCD). Falam area, Chin Hills. Alternate names: Bawm, Bawn, Bawng, Bom. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Central More information. Chin, Bualkhaw [cbl] Chin State, Falam Township. Dialects: Closest to Zanniet Chin. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Southern, Sho More information. Chin, Chinbon [cnb] 19,600 (1983). Kanpetlet, Yaw, Seidoutia, and Paletwa townships. Alternate names: Ütbü, Chindwin Chin, Sho, Chinbon. Dialects: Lexical similarity 50% with Asho Chin. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Southern, Sho More information. Chin, Daai [dao] 30,000 (1994 UBS). Matupi, Paletwa, Kanpetiet townships. Alternate names: Daai, Dai, M'kaang. Dialects: Matupi Daai, Paletwa Daai, Kanpetiet Daai. Two subgroups: one of them Tuishiip, or Shiip. Daai is reported to have 6 main subgroups. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Southern More information. Chin, Falam [flm] 100,000 in Myanmar (1991 UBS). Population includes 9,000 Tashon, 16,000 Zanniat, 7,000 Khualshim, 4,000 Lente, 14,400 Zahao 18,600 in Laizao (1983). Population total all countries: 125,367. Falam District, Chin Hills. Also spoken in Bangladesh, India. Alternate names: Hallam Chin, Halam, Fallam, Falam. Dialects: Zanniat, Tashon (Tashom, Shunkla, Sunkhla), Laizo (Laiso, Laizao, Laizo-Shimhrin), Zahao (Zahau, Yahow, Zahau-Shimhrin, Lyen-Lyem), Khualshim (Kwelshin), Lente (Lyente), Chorei. Chorei may be a separate language. In India, other dialect or clan names are: Choral, Dap, Eauglong, Ranjkho, Bong, Bongcher, Kaljang, Korbong, Langkai, Moosephang (Machaphang), Migli, Mitahar. They are collectively called 'Baro Halam'. Rupini and Koloi are said to be quite different from the others. Tapong is reported to have difficult intelligibility for speakers of other dialects. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Northern More information. Chin, Haka [cnh] 100,000 in Myanmar (1991 UBS). Population includes 2,000 Zokhua, 60,100 Lai (1983). Population total all countries: 446,264. Chin Hills, Haka area. Also spoken in Bangladesh, India. Alternate names: Haka, Hakha, Baungshe, Lai. Dialects: Klangklang (Thlantlang), Zokhua, Shonshe. Shonshe may be a separate language. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Central More information. Chin, Khumi [cnk] 36,700 in Myanmar (1983). Population total all countries: 37,888. Arakan Hills, Akyab area. Matu are in Southern Chin State, Matupi, Mindat, and Paletwa townships, western Myanmar. Also spoken in Bangladesh, India. Alternate names: Khumi, Khami, Khweymi, Khimi, Khuni. Dialects: Khimi, Yindi (Yindu), Khami, Ngala. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Southern, Khumi More information. Chin, Khumi Awa [cka] 40,900 (2003). Arakan Hills, coast areas. Dialects: The coastal dialect differs from the inland Khumi. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Southern, Khumi More information. Chin, Mara [mrh] 20,000 in Myanmar (1994). Lushai Hills. Alternate names: Mara, Lakher, Zao, Maram, Mira. Dialects: Tlongsai, Hlawthai, Sabeu. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Southern More information. Chin, Mro [cmr] 137,765 (2000 WCD). Arakan State. Dialects: Lexical similarity 13% with Mru of Bangladesh. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Southern More information. Chin, Mün [mwq] 30,000 (1991 UBS). Chin Hills, western. Alternate names: Mün, Ng'men, Cho, Yawdwin, Mindat, "Chinbok". Dialects: Nitu. Related to Daai Chin. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Southern More information. Chin, Ngawn [cnw] 15,000 (1984). Chin Hills, Falam area. Alternate names: Ngawn, Ngorn, Ngon. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Central More information. Chin, Paite [pck] 8,900 in Myanmar (1983). Tiddim District, Chin Hills. Alternate names: Paite, Paithe, Oarte, Hainte, Vuite. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Northern More information. Chin, Senthang [sez] 18,200 (1983). Haka, Chin Hills. Alternate names: Senthang, Hsemtang. Dialects: Very different from other Chin languages. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Central More information. Chin, Siyin [csy] 10,000 (1991 UBS). Chin Hills. Alternate names: Siyin, Siyang, Sizang. Dialects: Close to Paite Chin. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Northern More information. Chin, Tawr [tcp] 700 (1996 D. Van Bik). Falam, Haka, Chin Hills. Alternate names: Tawr, Torr. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Central More information. Chin, Tedim [ctd] 189,100 in Myanmar (1990 BAP). Population total all countries: 344,100. Chin Hills State, Upper Chindwin, Tiddim area. Also spoken in India. Alternate names: Tedim, Tiddim. Dialects: Sokte, Kamhau (Kamhow, Kamhao). Other Chin languages or dialects of this area are Saizang, Teizang, Zo (Zome). Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Northern More information. Chin, Thado [tcz] 26,200 in Myanmar (1983). Alternate names: Thadou, Thado-Ubiphei, Thado-Pao, Kuki, Kuki-Thado. Dialects: Baite, Changsen, Jangshen, Kaokeep, Khongzai, Kipgen, Langiung, Sairang, Thangngen, Hawkip. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Northern More information. Chin, Zotung [czt] 40,000 (1990 UBS). Chin Hills, Haka area. Alternate names: Zotung, Banjogi, Bandzhogi, Zobya. Dialects: Zotung is reported to be intelligible with Haka. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Central More information. Chittagonian [cit] Arakan State. Dialects: Rohinga (Akyab). Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Eastern zone, Bengali-Assamese More information. Danau [dnu] 10,000 (1984). Alternate names: Danaw. Dialects: Closest to Riang-Lang and Pale Palaung. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Eastern Palaungic, Danau More information. Gangte [gnb] Alternate names: Gante. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Northern More information. Hmong Njua [blu] 10,000 in Myanmar (1987 Haiv Hmoob). Alternate names: Blue Meo, Green Miao, Tak Meo, Hmong Njwa, Hmong Leng. Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Chuanqiandian More information. Hpon [hpo] A few hundred speakers (1997 D. Bradley). Ethnic population: 2,254 (2000 WCD). Gorges of the upper Irrawaddy, north of Bhamo. Alternate names: Hpön, Phun, Phön, Phon, Megyaw, Samong. Dialects: North Hpon, South Hpon. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Burmish, Northern More information. Hrangkhol [hra] 8,117 in Myanmar (2000 WCD). Population total all countries: 26,782. Also spoken in India. Alternate names: Rangkhol. Dialects: Closest to Biete. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Northern More information. Intha [int] 90,000 (2000 D. Bradley). Near Inle Lake in the southern Shan State. Alternate names: Inntha. Dialects: One of the better-known varieties of nonstandard Burmese with profound pronunciation and vocabulary differences from Burmese. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Burmish, Southern More information. Jingpho [kac] 900,000 in Myanmar (2001 Johnstone and Mandryk). Population total all countries: 940,000. Kachin State. Also spoken in China. Alternate names: Kachin, Jinghpaw, Chingpaw, Chingp'o, Marip. Dialects: Hkaku (Hka-Hku), Kauri (Hkauri, Gauri), Dzili (Jili), Dulong. Dzili may be a separate language. Hkaku and Kauri are only slightly different than Jingpho. Lexical similarity 50% with Singhpo of India. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Jingpho-Konyak-Bodo, Jingpho-Luish, Jingpho More information. Kado [kdv] 128,500 in Myanmar (1983). Population includes 90,300 Kado, 38,200 Ganaan. Population total all countries: 228,725. The Kado are found in Ban Mauk Township, Sagaing Division (a region west of the railway midway between Mandalay and Myitkyina). The Ganaan are found just west of the Kadu people. The Thet are found in Rakhine State. Also spoken in China, Laos. Alternate names: Kadu, Katu, Kato, Kudo, Asak, Sak, Gadu, Thet, That, Mawteik, Puteik, Woni, Kadu-Ganaan. Dialects: Kadu, Ganaan (Ganan), Andro, Sengmai, Chakpa, Phayeng. Kadu, Ganaan, Andro, Sengmai, Chakpa, and Phayeng may be separate languages. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Jingpho-Konyak-Bodo, Jingpho-Luish, Luish More information. Karen, Brek [kvl] 16,600 (1983). All Karen languages in Myanmar 2,600,000. Southwestern Kayah State. Alternate names: Brek, Brec, Bre, Pramano, Pre, Laku. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Sgaw-Bghai, Brek More information. Karen, Bwe [bwe] 15,700 (1983). Kyèbogyi area of Kayah State. A few in Thailand. Alternate names: Bghai Karen, Baghi, Bwe. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Sgaw-Bghai, Bghai, Unclassified More information. Karen, Geba [kvq] 10,000 (2000 D. Bradley). Ethnic population: 10,000 (2000 D. Bradley). Northern Kayah State and southern Shan State. Alternate names: Geba, Kaba, Karenbyu, Kayinbyu, White Karen, Eastern Bwe. Dialects: May be part of the same dialect cluster with Bwe and Brek. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Sgaw-Bghai, Bghai, Western More information. Karen, Geko [ghk] 9,500 (1983). Yamethin, Toungoo districts, Mobyè State of the southern Shan States. Alternate names: Gek'o, Gheko, Gekho, Ghekhol, Ghekhu, Keku, Kekhong, Kekaungdu, Gaikho, Padaung. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Sgaw-Bghai, Bghai, Unclassified More information. Karen, Lahta [kvt] 9,550 (2000 WCD). Southern Shan State. Alternate names: Lahta, Taru, Tarulakhi, Khahta, Peu. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Sgaw-Bghai, Bghai, Eastern More information. Karen, Manumanaw [kxf] 10,000 (2000 D. Bradley). Ethnic population: 10,000 (2000 D. Bradley). Western Kyèbogyi part of Kayah State. Alternate names: Manumanaw, Manu, Monu, Manö. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Sgaw-Bghai, Kayah More information. Karen, Paku [kpp] 5,300 (1983). Southern hills east of Taungoo in Kayah State. Alternate names: Paku, Pagu, Monnepwa, Monebwa, Mopwa, Mopha, Mopaga, Mogpha, Mogwa, Thalwepwe. Dialects: Bilichi, Dermuha. Close to S'gaw. Some reports indicate Paku and Mopwa are separate languages. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Sgaw-Bghai, Sgaw More information. Karen, Pa'o [blk] 560,000 in Myanmar (1983). Population total all countries: 560,743. Southwestern Shan State and east of the Gulf of Martaban in Tenasserim. Also spoken in Thailand. Alternate names: Northern Taungthu, Black Karen, Pa-U, Pa'o, Pa Oh, Pa-O. Dialects: Southern Pa'o, Northern Pa'o. Southern Pa'o is in Myanmar, Northern Pa'o in Thailand. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Pa'o More information. Karen, Pwo Eastern [kjp] 1,000,000 in Myanmar (1998). Population total all countries: 1,050,000. Karen State, Mon State, Tensserim Division. Also spoken in Thailand. Alternate names: Phlou, Moulmein Pwo Karen. Dialects: Pa'an (Moulmein, Inland Pwo Eastern Karen), Kawkareik (Eastern Border Pwo Karen), Tavoy (Southern Pwo Karen). Not intelligible with other Pwo Karen varieties. Lexical similarity 91% to 97% among dialects, 63% to 65% with other Pwo Karen varieties. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Pwo More information. Karen, Pwo Western [pwo] 210,000. Irrawaddy Delta. Alternate names: Mutheit, Delta Pwo Karen, Bassein Pwo Karen, Phlong Sho. Dialects: Bassein, Tuan Tet, Maubin. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Pwo More information. Karen, S'gaw [ksw] 1,284,700 in Myanmar (1983). Population total all countries: 1,584,700. Irrawaddy delta area, Tenasserim, the Pegu range between the Irrawaddy and Sittang, the eastern hills. Also spoken in Thailand. Alternate names: S'gaw, S'gau, S'gaw Kayin, Kanyaw, Paganyaw, Pwakanyaw, White Karen, Burmese Karen, Yang Khao, Pchcknya, Kyetho. Dialects: Panapu, Palakhi (Palachi). Close to Paku. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Sgaw-Bghai, Sgaw More information. Karen, Yinbaw [kvu] 7,300 (1983). Shan Plateau of eastern Shan State. Alternate names: Yinbaw, Yeinbaw. Dialects: Reported to be a variety of Padaung. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Sgaw-Bghai, Kayah More information. Karen, Yintale [kvy] 10,000 (2000 D. Bradley). Ethnic population: 10,000 (2000 D. Bradley). Bawlakhè part of Kayah State. Alternate names: Yintale, Yintalet, Yangatalet, Yangtadai, Taliak. Dialects: Reported to be a variety of Kayah. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Sgaw-Bghai, Kayah More information. Karen, Zayein [kxk] 9,300 (1983). Between the towns of Mobyè and Phekon in the southern Shan State. Alternate names: Zayein, Khaungtou, Gaungtou. Dialects: Close to Sawntung, Padang, Banyang. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Unclassified More information. Kayah, Eastern [eky] 261,578 in Myanmar (2000 WCD). Population total all countries: 360,220. Maehongson, east of the Salween River. Also spoken in Thailand. Alternate names: Red Karen, Karenni, Kayay, Kayah. Dialects: Distinct from but related to Bwe Karen (Bghai), forming a dialect cluster. Speakers have difficulty understanding Western Kayah of Myanmar. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Sgaw-Bghai, Kayah More information. Kayah, Western [kyu] 210,000 (1987). Kayah and Karen states, west of the Pong River. Alternate names: Kayah Li, Karenni, Karennyi, Red Karen, Yang Daeng, Karieng Daeng. Dialects: Distinct from but related to Bwe Karen, forming a dialect continuum from Thailand (Eastern Kayah) to western Kayah State. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Sgaw-Bghai, Kayah More information. Kayan [pdu] 40,900 in Myanmar (1983). Population total all countries: 41,050. Kayah State, Mobyè State, town of Phekon in the southern Shan States, and hills east of Toungoo. A few villages in Thailand. Also spoken in Thailand. Alternate names: Padaung, Kayang, Padaung Karen. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Sgaw-Bghai, Bghai, Eastern More information. Khamti [kht] 4,235 in Myanmar (2000 WCD). Population total all countries: 13,114. Northwestern Myanmar. Also possibly in China. Also spoken in India. Alternate names: Hkamti, Khampti, Khamti Shan, Khampti Shan, Khandi Shan, Kam Ti, Tai Kam Ti, Tai-Khamti. Dialects: Assam Khamti, North Burma Khamti, Sinkaling Hkamti. Related to Shan. Some similarities to northern Shan. In India, related to Phakaes, Aiton, Khamjang, Turung. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern, Northwest More information. Khmu [kjg] Alternate names: Kmhmu, Khmu', Kamu, Kammu, Khamuk, Kamhmu, Khomu, Mou, Pouteng, Pu Thenh, Tenh, Theng, Lao Terng. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Khmuic, Mal-Khmu', Khmu' More information. Khün [kkh] 114,574 in Myanmar (2000 WCD). Population total all countries: 120,855. Main Kentung Valley in the center of Shan State. Also spoken in Thailand. Alternate names: Hkun, Khun Shan, Khyn, Gon Shan, Tai Khun, Khuen, Tai-Khuen. Dialects: Close to Lü and Northern Tai or southern Shan. Lanna and Khun spoken dialects are considered close by their speakers. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern, Northwest More information. Kiorr [xko] Alternate names: Saamtaav, Con, Col. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Western Palaungic, Angkuic More information. Lahu [lhu] 125,000 in Myanmar (1993 Johnstone). Shan State, Kentung area. Alternate names: Lohei, Lahuna, Launa, Museu, Mussuh, Muhso, Musso. Dialects: Na (Black Lahu, Musser Dam, Northern Lahu, Loheirn), Nyi (Red Lahu, Southern Lahu, Musseh Daeng, Luhishi, Luhushi), Shehleh. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Loloish, Southern, Akha, Lahu More information. Lahu Shi [kds] 10,000 in Myanmar (1998). Kentung District. Alternate names: Kutsung, Kucong, Yellow Lahu, Shi, Kui, Kwi. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Loloish, Southern, Akha, Lahu More information. Lama [lay] 3,000 (1977 Voegelin and Voegelin). Dialects: Dialect or closely related language to Norra. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Nungish More information. Lamkang [lmk] Betukshangreng village, 20 km from the border with southeast Manipur, India. Alternate names: "Lamgang", "Hiroi-Lamgang", Lamkaang, Lamkang Naga. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Northern More information. Laopang [lbg] 9,550 (2000 WCD). Alternate names: Laopa. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Loloish, Unclassified More information. Lashi [lsi] 30,000 in Myanmar (2000 D. Bradley). Population total all countries: 31,800. Htawgaw Subdivision, Kachin State. Also spoken in China. Alternate names: Lachik, Lasi, Letsi, Lechi, Leqi, Lashi-Maru, Chashan, Lachikwaw, Ac'ye, Lacik, Lacid. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Burmish, Northern More information. Lisu [lis] 126,000 in Myanmar (1987). Around Lashio, in Wa State, around Myitkyina and Bhamo, around Putar towards Assam border, around Loilem area in Shan States. Alternate names: Lisaw, Li-Shaw, Li-Hsaw, Lu-Tzu, Southern Lisu, Yao Yen, Yaw-Yen, Yaw Yin, Yeh-Jeh, Central Lisu. Dialects: Hwa Lisu (Flowery Lisu), Black Lisu, White Lisu, Lu Shi Lisu. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Loloish, Northern, Lisu More information. Lopi [lov] 4,775 (2000 WCD). Possibly also in China. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Loloish, Unclassified More information. Lü [khb] 200,000 in Myanmar (1981). Kengtung District. Alternate names: Pai-I, Shu-Ai-I, Lue, Tai Lu. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern, Northwest More information. Lui [lba] 200. Alternate names: Loi. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Unclassified More information. Mahei [mja] 12,000. Alternate names: Mahe, Mabe. Dialects: Ethnic group or dialect of Hani or Akha. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Loloish, Southern, Akha More information. Maru [mhx] 100,000 in Myanmar (1997 D. Bradley). Population total all countries: 103,500. Kachin State, eastern border area, widely dispersed, north Myanmar. Also spoken in China. Alternate names: Matu, Malu, Lawng, Laungwaw, Laungaw, Langsu, Lang, Mulu, Diso, Zi, Lhao Vo. Dialects: Dago' Lawng Bit, Zagaran Mran, Gawan Naw', Hlo'lan, Laking, Wa Khawk, Lawng Hsu. Lawng Hsu may have difficult intelligibility of the other dialects. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Burmish, Northern More information. Meitei [mni] 6,000 in Myanmar (1931). Alternate names: Meithei, Meithe, Mithe, Mitei, Meiteiron, Manipuri, Menipuri, Kathe, Kathi, Ponna. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Meitei More information. Mizo [lus] 12,500 in Myanmar (1983). Western Myanmar. Alternate names: Hualngo, Whelngo, Le, Lushei, Lusai, Lushai. Dialects: Dulien, Ngente, Mizo. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Central More information. Moken [mwt] 7,000 in Myanmar (1993 Johnstone). Mergui Archipelago, Dung, and other islands in south Myanmar. Also spoken in Thailand. Alternate names: Mawken, Basing, Selung, Selong, Salong, Salon, Chau Ko'. Dialects: Dung, Ja-It, L'be. Closest to Moklen. Related to Urak Lawoi. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayic, Moklen More information. Mon [mnw] 742,900 in Myanmar (2004). Population total all countries: 850,530. Eastern delta region from east of Rangoon as far as Ye and Thailand; south Martaban, adjacent area. Also spoken in Thailand. Alternate names: Talaing, Mun, Peguan. Dialects: Mataban-Moulmein (Central Mon, Mon Te), Pegu (Northern Mon, Mon Tang), Ye (Southern Mon, Mon Nya). Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Monic More information. Naga, Khiamniungan [nky] Northwestern. Alternate names: Khiamngan, Khiamniungan, Kalyokengnyu, Makware, Nokaw, Para, Ponyo, Welam. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Jingpho-Konyak-Bodo, Konyak-Bodo-Garo, Konyak More information. Naga, Tase [nst] 55,389 in Myanmar (2000). Population total all countries: 100,389. Northwestern Myanmar. Also spoken in India. Alternate names: Cham Chang, Rangpan, Tase, Tangsa, Tasey. Dialects: Gashan, Hkaluk, Sangche, Saukrang, Langshin, Mawrang, Myimu, Sangtai, Tulim, Longri. Some dialects are widely divergent. Close to Nocte Naga. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Jingpho-Konyak-Bodo, Konyak-Bodo-Garo, Konyak More information. Nga La [hlt] 40,000 in Myanmar (2000). Population total all countries: 60,000. Also spoken in India. Alternate names: Matu Chin, Thlan Tan. Dialects: Va Lang (Warang), Tlam Tlaih. Not intelligible with Chin Haka. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Southern More information. Norra [nrr] 6,207 (2000 WCD). Myanmar-Tibet border. Alternate names: Nora, Noza, Nurra. Dialects: Nora, Byabe, Kizolo. Lama (3,000) may be a dialect. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Nungish More information. Nung [nun] 400 in Myanmar (2000 D. Bradley). Population total all countries: 790. Ethnic population: 6,000 in Myanmar (2000 D. Bradley). North Myanmar. Salween (Nu) River. Also spoken in China. Alternate names: Anung, Anong, Anoong, Anu, Nu, Lu, Lutzu, Lutze, Kiutze, Khanung, Kwinp'ang, Khupang, Kwingsang, Fuch'ye. Dialects: Cholo, Gwaza, Miko. 15 or 16 dialects, mostly inherently intelligible with each other. They understand the Mutwang dialect of Rawang. They may be the same as the Nu River Drung in China. May be related to Jingpho. Lexical similarity 70% with Rawang. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Nungish More information. Palaung, Pale [pce] 257,539 in Myanmar (2000 WCD). Total Palaung and Riang in Myanmar: 250,000. Population total all countries: 267,539. Southern Shan State area near Kalaw. 10,000 square mile area. Also spoken in China, Thailand. Alternate names: Di-Ang, Ngwe Palaung, Silver Palaung, Pale, Palay. Dialects: Close to Shwe Palaung and Rumai Palaung. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Eastern Palaungic, Palaung More information. Palaung, Rumai [rbb] 137,000 in Myanmar. Population total all countries: 139,000. Northern Shan State. Also spoken in China. Alternate names: Rumai. Dialects: Close to Shwe Palaung and Pale Palaung. Officially included De'ang nationality in China. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Eastern Palaungic, Palaung More information. Palaung, Shwe [pll] 148,000 in Myanmar (1982). Population total all countries: 150,000. Northern Shan State, centered in Nam Hsan. Also spoken in China. Alternate names: Ta-Ang Palaung, Golden Palaung, Shwe. Dialects: 15 Palaung dialects in Myanmar. Pale Palaung and Rumai are closely related, but distinct languages. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Eastern Palaungic, Palaung More information. Palu [pbz] 4,775 (2000 WCD). Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Unclassified More information. Pankhu [pkh] Falam area, Chin Hills. Alternate names: Pankho, Panko, Pangkhu. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Central More information. Parauk [prk] 348,400 in Myanmar (1983). Population total all countries: 528,400. Shan State, upper Salween River area. Also spoken in China. Alternate names: Wa, Praok, Phalok, Baraog. Dialects: Related to Lawa and Wa in Thailand and China. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Western Palaungic, Waic, Wa More information. Purum [pub] 300 (1977 Voegelin and Voegelin). Alternate names: Puram. Dialects: Related to Chiru, Aimol, Langrong. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Northern More information. Pyen [pyy] 800 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). East central, 2 enclaves very near the Laos border, near the Kha River. Alternate names: Hpyin. Dialects: Close to Phunoi, Bisu, Mpi. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Loloish, Southern, Phunoi More information. Ralte [ral] 24,801 in Myanmar (2000 WCD). Population total all countries: 25,104. Also spoken in India. Dialects: Related to Tiddim, Paite, Thado, Zo. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Northern More information. Rawang [raw] 62,074 in Myanmar (2000 WCD). Population total all countries: 122,610. Kachin State, highlands. Serwang is close to the Tibet border. Wadamkong is in Myanmar. Also spoken in India. Alternate names: Nung Rawang, Ganung-Rawang, Hkanung, Nung, Krangku, Taron, Kiutze, Ch'opa, Chiutse. Dialects: Rawang, Agu, Hpungsi, Htiselwang, Matwanly, Mutwang, Serhta, Serwang, Wadamkong, Wahke, Taron, Tangsarr, Longmi (Lungmi), Zithung, Kunlang. 75 to 100 dialects, some of which are inherently unintelligible to each other's speakers. Five major divisions: Longmi, Mutwang, Serwang, Tangsarr, Kwinpang (Nung); each has 20 to 30 subdialects. Dialect continuum with Nu nationality in China. Dialects near the Tibet border are harder to understand. Kunglang in India; communication cut off in 1950s. Most dialects understand Mutwang, the central, written dialect. Related, but not the same as Drung in China. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Nungish More information. Riang [ril] 48,819 in Myanmar (2000 WCD). Population total all countries: 51,819. Shan State, southeastern Myanmar. Also spoken in China. Alternate names: Black Karen, Yanglam, Black Yang, Riang-Lang, Yin, Yang, Liang Sek, Yang Wan Kun. Dialects: Close to Pale Palaung. May be the same as Shwe Palaung. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Eastern Palaungic, Riang More information. Samtao [stu] 9,550 in Myanmar (2000 WCD). Population total all countries: 9,650. Eastern Shan State. Also spoken in China. Alternate names: Samtau, Samtuan. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Western Palaungic, Angkuic More information. Sansu [sca] 4,775 (2000 WCD). Dialects: May not be a distinct language. In China, included with the Hani. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Loloish, Southern, Akha, Hani More information. Shan [shn] 3,200,000 in Myanmar (2001 Johnstone and Mandryk). Population includes 350,000 Tai Mao (1990 A. Diller ANU). Population total all countries: 3,260,000. Shan States, southeast Myanmar. Kokant Shan is in the Kokant area in northern Wa State in the Shan States. Tai Mao is on the Burma-Yunnan border, centered at Mu'ang Mao Long or Namkham, Myanmar. Also spoken in China, Thailand. Alternate names: Sha, Tai Shan, Sam, Thai Yai, Tai Yai, Great Thai, Tai Luang, Mau, "Ngio", "Ngiow", "Ngiaw", "Ngiao", "Ngeo". Dialects: Kokant Shan, Tai Mao (Mao, Maw, Mau, Tai Long, Northern Shan). Burmese Shan is spoken with regional dialect differences, but dialects are close linguistically. Tai-Khae (Khe) may be a dialect. Low intelligibility of Lü. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern, Northwest More information. Tai Loi [tlq] 1,432 in Myanmar (2000 WCD). Population total all countries: 1,932. Namkham, in the northeast corner near the Laos and Chinese borders. Doi is across the border in Laos. Also spoken in Laos. Alternate names: Loi, Tailoi, Wakut, Monglwe. Dialects: Tai Loi, Doi. Closest to Pale Palaung, but with a lot of sound changes, also separating it from Palaung in China. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Western Palaungic, Angkuic More information. Tai Nüa [tdd] 72,400 in Myanmar (1983). Also possibly in northern Viet Nam. Alternate names: Tai Neua, Chinese Shan, Tai Kong. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern, Northwest More information. Taman [tcl] 10,000. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Jingpho-Konyak-Bodo, Jingpho-Luish, Jingpho More information. Taungyo [tco] 40,000 (2000 D. Bradley). East central; vicinity of Taunggyi, Shan State southward to Tavoy, Tenasserim State. Alternate names: Taru, Tavoya, Tavoyan, Dawe, Dawai, Tawe-Tavoy, Toru. Dialects: Related to Burmese. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Burmish, Southern More information. Tavoyan [tvn] 400,000 (2000 D. Bradley). Southeast. Dialects: One of the better known varieties of nonstandard Burmese with profound pronunciation and vocabulary differences from Burmese. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Burmish, Southern More information. Wa [wbm] 558,000 in Myanmar (1993 Johnstone). Population total all countries: 838,000. Shan State, upper Salween River area. Kentung Wa are in or around Kentung City in southern Wa area. Also spoken in China. Alternate names: K'awa, Kawa, Va, Vo, Wa Pwi, Wakut. Dialects: Wa Lon, Wu, Kentung Wa, Son, En, La. Related to Lawa and Parauk in Thailand and China. Kentung Wa is more closely related to Lawa than are the northern dialects. En and Son are very different from each other. Son, En, and La may be separate languages. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Western Palaungic, Waic, Wa More information. Welaung [weu] 9,550 (2000 WCD). Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Southern More information. Wewaw [wea] 23,874 (2000 WCD). Toungoo District. Alternate names: Wewau. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Sgaw-Bghai, Sgaw More information. Yangbye [ybd] 810,300 (1983). Alternate names: Yanbe, Yangye, Yanbye. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Burmish, Southern More information. Yinchia [yin] 4,000 (1974 Hackett). Shan State south. Alternate names: Striped Karen, Yinnet, Black Riang, Ranei. Dialects: Related to Riang Lang and Wa. Not Karen. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Eastern Palaungic, Riang More information. Yos [yos] 3,400 (1983). Alternate names: Yo, Yote. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Northern More information. Zaiwa [atb] 30,000 in Myanmar (1997). Kachin State, Sedan, Kentung. Alternate names: Zi, Tsaiwa, Atsi, Atshi, Atzi, Azi, Aci. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Burmish, Northern More information. Zome [zom] 30,000 in Myanmar. Population total all countries: 39,112. Chin State, Tiddim, Chin Hills. Also spoken in India. Alternate names: Zorni, Zomi, Zou, Zo, Kuki Chin. Dialects: Paite Chin, Zome, and Simte are almost identical. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Northern More information. Zyphe [zyp] 17,000 in Myanmar (1994). Population total all countries: 20,000. Chin State, Thantlang Township. Also spoken in India. Alternate names: Zophei, Zoptei. Dialects: Lower Zyphe, Upper Zyphe. Close to Mara Chin. Myanmar and India varieties reported intelligible to each other's speakers (Davis 01). Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Southern More information. Extinct languages Pali [pli] Extinct. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Unclassified Capital city: Nay Pyi Taw and Yangoon Meaning country name: One explanation sees the name as a derivative of the Burmese short-form name Myanma Naingngandaw; an alternative etymology suggests that myan means "quick/fast" and mar means "hard/tough/strong". The renaming of the country in 1989 has aroused political controversy; as certain minority groups and activist communities charge the symbolism of the move intended to strengthen the position of hard-line political elements inside the country. Correspondingly, such groups continue to refer to Myanmar as "Burma". Burma (former name): The name Burma apparently derives from the Sanskrit name for the region: "Brahmadesh", land of (the deity) Brahma Description Flag: The flag of Burma (also called Myanmar) was adopted on January 3, 1974 upon the declaration of a socialist republic in Burma by Ne Win. The new flag design was not radically different from the previous flag of Burma in that both featured a red field with a blue canton in the upper corner on the hoist side. However, the imagery within the canton was changed to a cog wheel with a bushel of rice superimposed upon it. These socialist symbols stand for the workers and farmers. Surrounding this are 14 five-pointed stars that represent the administrative divisions of Burma. The white color symbolizes purity, the blue symbolizes peace and integrity, and the red symbolizes courage. Coat of arms: The Coat of arms of Myanmar is used in all official government documents, including publications. The coat of arms has two chinthe (mythical lions) facing opposite one another, and at its center is a map of Myanmar placed in front of a cogwheel. The coat of arms is surrounded by traditional Burmese flower designs and a star at its top. The original coat of arms contained, on the banner ပ္ရည္‌ေထာင္စု သမတ-မ္ရန္မာ နုိင္ငံေတာ္, which translates "Union of Myanmar". As well as it carries three lions (the lion at the top was replaced by a star). Additionally, the cogwheel was a circle surrounded by the Burmese words တပော (MLC Transcription System: ta.pau; tha-baw). However, during Ne Win's Socialist rule, the coat of arms was modified to accommodate a cogwheel and dual olive wreaths. The words were also modified. The Burmese coat of arms continues to contain Socialist influences, namely the cogwheel and the star. The coat of arms shown (emblem/picture) at the side of this page is written in Burmese says Pyidaungsu Socialist Thamada Myanmar-naing-gan-daw which actually means "Union of Socialist Myanmar". National Anthem: Kaba Ma Kyei IPA pronunciation gəbà mətʃè mjəmà pjè do̰ bó bwá ʔəmwè siʔ mo̰ tʃʰiʔ mjaʔ nó bè pjì dã̀ũ zṵ gò ʔəθeʔ pé lo̰ do̰ kà gwɛ̀ məlè dà do̰ pjè dà do̰ mjè do̰ pã̀ĩ neʔ mjè do̰ pjè do̰ mjè ʔətʃó gò ɲì ɲà zwà do̰ dədwè tʰã́ sʰã̀ũ bà so̰ lè do̰ ta wã pe ʔəpʰó dã̀ mjè MLC transcription kam.bha ma.kye / mran.ma prany / tui. bhui: bwa: a.mwe cac mui. hkyac mrat nui: pe // prany htaung su. kui a.sak pe: lui. tui. ka kwai ma.le / da tui. prany da tui. mre to. puing nak mre // tui. prany tui. mre a.kyui: kui nyi nya cwa tui. ta.twe htam: hsaung pa sui. le to. ta wan pe a. hpui: tan mre English Until the world crumbles, Myanmar!, Our ancestors gave us the inheritance after fighting wars with love. Until the world crumbles, Myanmar!, Our ancestors gave us the inheritance after fighting wars with love. We will sacrifice our lives and our labours to protect the Union. This is our Nation, this is our Land, the land that we own. Our nation, our land will prosper with productivity and equality as pictured To unite in keeping to the duties of our valuable land. Internet Page: www.myanmar.com www.myanmar-tourism.com www.myanmar.gov.mm Myanmar in diferent languages eng | afr | bre | cym | fao | jav | jnf | lld | nld | que | swa: Myanmar arg | ast | eus | glg | ina | ita | oci | roh | ron | spa: Myanmar; Birmania dan | dsb | fin | hsb | nor | rup | scn | sme | swe: Myanmar; Burma csb | est | fry | pol | szl | vor: Myanmar; Birma deu | ltz | nds: Myanmar / Myanmar; Birma / Birma gag | kaa | uzb: Myanma / Мьянма; Birma / Бирма gla | hrv: Mianmar; Burma ind | msa: Myanmar / ميانمار kin | run: Miyamare mlt | slv: Mjanmar tur | zza: Myanmar; Birmanya; Burma aze: Miyanmar / Мијанмар; Birma / Бирма bam: Miyanimara; Birimani bos: Mjanmar / Мјанмар; Burma / Бурма cat: Myanmar; Birmània ces: Myanmar; Barma cor: Byrmani cos: Birmania crh: Myanmar / Мьянмар epo: Mjanmao; Birmo fra: Myanmar; Birmanie frp: Birmanie fur: Mianmar; Birmanie gle: Maenmar / Maenmar; Burma / Burma glv: Myanmar; Yn Vurmey hat: Bimani hau: Bama; Burma hun: Mianmar ibo: Mianma isl: Mjanmar; Búrma; Burma kmr: Mîyanma / Мийанма / میانما; Bîrma / Бирма / بیرما; Bîrman / Бирман / بیرمان; Borma / Борма / بۆرما kur: Miyanmar / میانمار; Bûrma / بوورما; Bîrma / بیرما lat: Myanmar; Birmania; Birma lav: Mjanma; Birma lim: Börma lit: Mianmaras; Birma mlg: Myanmara; Birma mol: Myanmar / Мянмар; Birmania / Бирмания nrm: Birmanîn por: Mianmar; Myanmar; Mianmá; Birmânia; Burma rmy: Myanmar / म्यान्मार slk: Mjanmarsko slo: Mianmar / Мианмар; Burma / Бурма smg: Mianmars smo: Maianama sqi: Mjanmari; Birmania srd: Myanmàr; Birmània tet: Myanmar; Birmánia tgl: Burma; Birmanya ton: Pema tuk: Mýanma / Мьянма; Birma / Бирма vie: Miến Điện; Mi-an-ma vol: Myanmän wln: Birmaneye wol: Miyanmaar abq | alt | che | chm | kir | kjh | kom | krc | kum | rus | tyv | udm: Мьянма (M'janma); Бирма (Birma) bak | tat: Мьянма / Myanma; Бирма / Birma bel: М’янмар / Mianmar; М’янма / Mianma; Бірма / Birma bul: Мианмар (Mianmar); Мянма (Mjanma); Бурма (Burma) chv: Мьянма (M'janma); Бирмӑ (Birmă) kaz: Мьянма / Myanma / ميانما; Бирма / Bïrma / بيرما kbd: Мьянма (M'janma); Бирмэ (Birmă) mkd: Мијанмар (Mijanmar); Бурма (Burma) mon: Мьянма (M'janma); Бирм (Birm) oss: Мьянмӕ (M'janmä); Бирмӕ (Birmä) srp: Мијанмар / Mijanmar; Бурма / Burma tgk: Мянма / مینمه / Mjanma; Бирма / بیرمه / Birma ukr: М’янма (M’janma); Бірма (Birma) ara: ميانمار (Miyānmār); بورما (Būrmā); برما (Burmā); برمانيا (Birmāniyā) fas: میانمار / Miyânmâr; برمه / Berme; بیرمانی / Birmâni prs: میانمار (Myānmār); برما (Bermā) pus: ميانمار (Myānmār); برما (Bərmā) uig: بىرما / Birma / Бирма; بېرما / Bérma / Берма urd: میانمار (Miyānmār); برما (Barmā) div: މިއަންމާ (Mi'anmā); ބަރުމާ (Barumā) heb: מינמר (Myanmar); מינמאר / מיינמאר (Myanmâr); מיאנמר (Myânmar); מיאנמאר (Myânmâr); בורמה (Bûrmah); ברמה (Bermah) lad: מייאנמאר / Myanmar yid: מיאַנמאַר (Myanmar); בורמאַ (Burma) amh: ምየንማር (Myänmar); ቡርማ (Burma); በርማ (Bärma) ell: Μιανμάρ (Mianmár); Μυανμάρ (Myanmár); Βιρμανία (Virmanía); Μπούρμα (Mpoýrma) hye: Մյանմար (Myanmar); Բիրմա (Birma) kat: მიანმარი (Mianmari) hin: म्यानमार (Myānmār); बरमा (Barmā); बर्म्हा (Barmhā); ब्रह्मदेश (Brahmadeš) nep: बर्मा Barmā; ब्रम्हादेश Bramhādeš ben: মিয়ানমার (Miyānmār); মায়ানমার (Māyānmār); বার্মা (Bārmā); ব্রহ্মদেশ (Brôhmôdeš) pan: ਮਿਆਂਮਾਰ (Miā̃mār); ਬਰਮਾ (Barmā) sin: බුරුමය (Burumaya) kan: ಮಯನ್ಮಾರ್ (Mayanmār); ಬರ್ಮ (Barma) mal: മ്യാന്മാര് (Myānmār); ബര്മ്മ (Barmma) tam: மியான்மார் (Miyāṉmār); மியன்மார் (Miyaṉmār); பர்மா (Parmā) tel: మయన్మార్ (Mayanmār); బర్మా (Barmā) zho: 緬甸/缅甸 (Miǎndiàn) yue: 緬甸/缅甸 (Míhndihn) jpn: ミャンマー (Myanmā) kor: 미얀마 (Mianma) bod: འཔར་མ་ ('Par.ma.); སྦར་མ་ (sBar.ma.); འབར་མ་ ('Bar.ma.) dzo: མེ་མར་ (Me.mar.) mya: မ္ရန္မာ (Mẏãma) tha: เมียนมาร์ (Miyanmā[r]); พม่า (Pamā̀) lao: ພະມ້າ (Pʰamā́) khm: មីយ៉ាន់ម៉ា (Mīyanmā); មៀនម៉ា (Mienmā); ភូមា (Pʰūmā)

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganesha Ganesha (Sanskrit: गणेश; Gaṇeśa; listen (help·info)), also spelled Ganesa or Ganesh and also known as Ganapati, Vinayaka, and Pillaiyar, is one of the best-known and most worshipped deities in the Hindu pantheon.[5] His image is found throughout India.[6] Hindu sects worship him regardless of other affiliations.[7] Devotion to Ganesha is widely diffused and extends to Jains, Buddhists, and beyond India.[8] Although he is known by many other attributes, Ganesha's elephant head makes him easy to identify.[9] Ganesha is widely revered as the Remover of Obstacles[10] and more generally as Lord of Beginnings and Lord of Obstacles (Vighnesha, Vighneshvara),[11] patron of arts and sciences, and the deva of intellect and wisdom.[12] He is honoured at the start of rituals and ceremonies and invoked as Patron of Letters during writing sessions.[13] Several texts relate mythological anecdotes associated with his birth and exploits and explain his distinct iconography. The elephant-headed Ganesha as lord of the Ganas was known to the people of Sri Lanka in the early pre-Christian era. [14] Ganesha emerged as a distinct deity in clearly recognizable form in the 4th and 5th centuries CE, during the Gupta Period, although he inherited traits from Vedic and pre-Vedic precursors.[15] His popularity rose quickly, and he was formally included among the five primary deities of Smartism (a Hindu denomination) in the 9th century. A sect of devotees called the Ganapatya, (Sanskrit: गाणपत्य; gāṇapatya), who identified Ganesha as the supreme deity, arose during this period.[16] The principal scriptures dedicated to Ganesha are the Ganesha Purana, the Mudgala Purana, and the Ganapati Atharvashirsa. Contents [hide] * 1 Etymology and other names * 2 Iconography o 2.1 Common attributes o 2.2 Vahanas * 3 Associations o 3.1 Obstacles o 3.2 Buddhi o 3.3 Aum o 3.4 First chakra * 4 Family and consorts * 5 Worship and festivals o 5.1 Ganesh Chaturthi o 5.2 Temples * 6 Rise to prominence o 6.1 First appearance o 6.2 Possible influences o 6.3 Vedic and epic literature o 6.4 Puranic period o 6.5 Scriptures * 7 Beyond India and Hinduism * 8 Notes * 9 References * 10 External links [edit] Etymology and other names Ganesha as 'Shri Mayureshwar' with consorts Buddhi and Siddhi, Morgaon (the central shrine for the regional aṣṭavināyaka complex) Ganesha as 'Shri Mayureshwar' with consorts Buddhi and Siddhi, Morgaon (the central shrine for the regional aṣṭavināyaka complex)[17] Ganesh has many other titles and epithets, including Ganapati and Vigneshvara. The Hindu title of respect Shri (Sanskrit: श्री; śrī, also spelled Sri or Shree) is often added before his name. One popular way Ganesha is worshipped is by chanting a Ganesha Sahasranama, a litany of "a thousand names of Ganesha". Each name in the sahasranama conveys a different meaning and symbolises a different aspect of Ganesha. At least two different versions of the Ganesha Sahasranama exist; one version is drawn from the Ganesha Purana, a Hindu scripture venerating Ganesha.[18] The name Ganesha is a Sanskrit compound, joining the words gana (Sanskrit: गण; gaṇa), meaning a group, multitude, or categorical system and isha (Sanskrit: ईश; īśa), meaning lord or master.[19] The word gaņa when associated with Ganesha is often taken to refer to the gaņas, a troop of semi-divine beings that form part of the retinue of Shiva (IAST: Śiva).[20] The term more generally means a category, class, community, association, or corporation.[21] Some commentators interpret the name "Lord of the Gaņas" to mean "Lord of Hosts" or "Lord of created categories", such as the elements.[22] Ganapati (Sanskrit: गणपति; gaṇapati), a synonym for Ganesha, is a compound composed of gaṇa, meaning "group", and pati, meaning "ruler" or "lord".[23] The Amarakośa,[24] an early Sanskrit lexicon, lists eight synonyms of Ganesha : Vinayaka, Vighnarāja (equivalent to Vignesha), Dvaimātura (one who has two mothers),[25] Gaṇādhipa (equivalent to Ganapati and Ganesha), Ekadanta (one who has one tusk), Heramba, Lambodara (one who has a pot belly, or, literally, one who has a hanging belly), and Gajanana (IAST: gajānana) ; having the face of an elephant).[26] Vinayaka (Sanskrit: विनायक; vināyaka) is a common name for Ganesha that appears in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras.[27] This name is reflected in the naming of the eight famous Ganesha temples in Maharashtra known as the aṣṭavināyaka.[28] The names Vignesha (Sanskrit: विघ्नेश; vighneśa) and Vigneshvara (Sanskrit: विघ्नेश्वर; vighneśvara) (Lord of Obstacles)[11] refers to his primary function in Hindu mythology as the creator and remover of obstacles (vighna).[29] A prominent name for Ganesha in the Tamil language is Pille or Pillaiyar (Little Child).[30] A. K. Narain differentiates these terms by saying that pille means a "child" while pillaiyar means a "noble child". He adds that the words pallu, pella, and pell in the Dravidian family of languages signify "tooth or tusk of an elephant", but more generally "elephant".[31] Anita Raina Thapan notes that the root word pille in the name Pillaiyar might have originally meant "the young of the elephant", because the Pali word pillaka means "a young elephant".[32] [edit] Iconography See also: Sritattvanidhi This statue of Ganesha was created in the Mysore District of Karnataka in the 13th century. This statue of Ganesha was created in the Mysore District of Karnataka in the 13th century. Ganesha is a popular figure in Indian art.[33] Unlike those of some deities, representations of Ganesha show wide variations and distinct patterns changing over time.[34] He may be portrayed standing, dancing, heroically taking action against demons, playing with his family as a boy, sitting down, or engaging in a range of contemporary situations. Images of Ganesha first appeared in Sri Lanka at least as early as the 2nd century CE. The earliest known image occurs at the Kantaka Cetiya in Mihintale, which is dated to earlier than the 1st century BC. The figure is a one-tusked Gana (dwarf) attended by other ganas, who hold the various attributes of the deity.[35] Ganesha images were prevalent in many parts of India by the 6th century.[36] The figure shown to the right is typical of Ganesha statuary from 900–1200, after Ganesha had been well-established as an independent deity with his own sect. This example features some of Ganesha's common iconographic elements. A virtually identical statue has been dated between 973–1200 by Paul Martin-Dubost,[37] and another similar statue is dated c. 12th century by Pratapaditya Pal.[38] Ganesha has the head of an elephant and a big belly. This statue has four arms, which is common in depictions of Ganesha. He holds his own broken tusk in his lower-right hand and holds a delicacy, which he samples with his trunk, in his lower-left hand. The motif of Ganesha turning his trunk sharply to his left to taste a sweet in his lower-left hand is a particularly archaic feature.[39] A more primitive statue in one of the Ellora Caves with this general form has been dated to the 7th century.[40] Details of the other hands are difficult to make out on the statue shown. In the standard configuration, Ganesha typically holds an axe or a goad in one upper arm and a noose in the other upper arm. The influence of this old constellation of iconographic elements can still be seen in contemporary representations of Ganesha. In one modern form, the only variation from these old elements is that the lower-right hand does not hold the broken tusk but rather is turned toward the viewer in a gesture of protection or fearlessness (abhaya mudra).[41] The same combination of four arms and attributes occurs in statues of Ganesha dancing, which is a very popular theme.[42] [edit] Common attributes For stories mentioning Ganesha's attributes, see Mythological anecdotes of Ganesha. A typical four-armed form. Miniature of Nurpur school (circa 1810). A typical four-armed form. Miniature of Nurpur school (circa 1810).[43] Ganesha has been represented with the head of an elephant since the early stages of his appearance in Indian art.[44] Puranic myths provide many explanations for how he got his elephant head.[45] One of his popular forms, Heramba-Ganapati, has five elephant heads, and other less-common variations in the number of heads are known.[46] While some texts say that Ganesha was born with an elephant head, in most stories he acquires the head later.[47] The most recurrent motif in these stories is that Ganesha was born with a human head and body and that Shiva beheaded him when Ganesha came between Shiva and Parvati. Shiva then replaced Ganesha's original head with that of an elephant.[48] Details of the battle and where the replacement head came from vary according to different sources.[49] In another story, when Ganesha was born, his mother, Parvati, showed off her new baby to the other gods. Unfortunately, the god Shani (Saturn), who is said to have the evil eye, looked at him, causing the baby's head to be burned to ashes. The god Vishnu came to the rescue and replaced the missing head with that of an elephant.[50] Another story says that Ganesha was created directly by Shiva's laughter. Because Shiva considered Ganesha too alluring, he gave him the head of an elephant and a protruding belly.[51] Ganesha's earliest name was Ekadanta (One Tusk), referring to his single whole tusk, the other having been broken off.[52] Some of the earliest images of Ganesha show him holding his broken tusk.[53] The importance of this distinctive feature is reflected in the Mudgala Purana, which states that the name of Ganesha's second incarnation is Ekadanta.[54] Ganesha's protruding belly appears as a distinctive attribute in his earliest statuary, which dates to the Gupta period (fourth to sixth centuries).[55] This feature is so important that, according to the Mudgala Purana, two different incarnations of Ganesha use names based on it: Lambodara (Pot Belly, or, literally, Hanging Belly) and Mahodara (Great Belly).[56] Both names are Sanskrit compounds describing his belly (Sanskrit: udara).[57] The Brahmanda Purana says that Ganesha has the name Lambodara because all the universes (i.e., cosmic eggs; IAST: brahmāṇḍas) of the past, present, and future are present in him.[58] The number of Ganesha's arms varies; his best-known forms have between two and sixteen arms.[59] Many depictions of Ganesha feature four arms, which is mentioned in Puranic sources and codified as a standard form in some iconographic texts.[60] His earliest images had two arms.[61] Forms with 14 and 20 arms appeared in central India during the 9th and 10th centuries.[62] The serpent is a common feature in Ganesha iconography and appears in many forms.[63] According to the Ganesha Purana, Ganesha wrapped the serpent Vāsuki around his neck.[64] Other depictions of snakes include use as a sacred thread (IAST: yajñyopavīta)[65] wrapped around the stomach as a belt, held in a hand, coiled at the ankles, or as a throne. Upon Ganesha's forehead there may be a third eye or the Shaivite sectarian mark (Sanskrit: tilaka), which consists of three horizontal lines.[66] The Ganesha Purana prescribes a tilaka mark as well as a crescent moon on the forehead.[67] A distinct form of Ganesha called Bhalachandra (IAST: bhālacandra; "Moon on the Forehead") includes that iconographic element. Specific colors are associated with certain forms.[68] Many examples of color associations with specific meditation forms are prescribed in the Sritattvanidhi, a treatise on Hindu iconography. For example, white is associated with his representations as Heramba-Ganapati and Rina-Mochana-Ganapati (Ganapati Who Releases from Bondage).[69] Ekadanta-Ganapati is visualized as blue during meditation on that form.[70] [edit] Vahanas The earliest Ganesha images are without a vahana (mount).[71] Of the eight incarnations of Ganesha described in the Mudgala Purana, Ganesha has a mouse in five of them, uses a lion in his incarnation as Vakratunda, a peacock in his incarnation of Vikata, and Shesha, the divine serpent, in his incarnation as Vighnaraja.[72] Of the four incarnations of Ganesha listed in the Ganesha Purana, Mohotkata has a lion, Mayūreśvara has a peacock, Dhumraketu has a horse, and Gajanana has a rat.[73] Jain depictions of Ganesha show his vahana variously as a mouse, elephant, tortoise, ram, or peacock.[74] Ganesha riding on his mouse. A sculpture at the Vaidyeshwara temple in Talakkadu, Karnataka, India. Note the red flowers offered by devotees. Ganesha riding on his mouse. A sculpture at the Vaidyeshwara temple in Talakkadu, Karnataka, India. Note the red flowers offered by devotees. Ganesha is often shown riding on or attended by a mouse or rat.[75] Martin-Dubost says that the rat began to appear as the principal vehicle in sculptures of Ganesha in central and western India during the 7th century; the rat was always placed close to his feet.[76] The mouse as a mount first appears in written sources in the Matsya Purana and later in the Brahmananda Purana and Ganesha Purana, where Ganesha uses it as his vehicle only in his last incarnation.[77] The Ganapati Atharvashirsa includes a meditation verse on Ganesha that describes the mouse appearing on his flag.[78] The names Mūṣakavāhana (mouse-mount) and Ākhuketana (rat-banner) appear in the Ganesha Sahasranama.[79] The mouse is interpreted in several ways. According to Grimes, "Many, if not most of those who interpret Gaṇapati's mouse, do so negatively; it symbolizes tamoguṇa as well as desire".[80] Along these lines, Michael Wilcockson says it symbolizes those who wish to overcome desires and be less selfish.[81] Krishan notes that the rat is destructive and a menace to crops. The Sanskrit word mūṣaka (mouse) is derived from the root mūṣ (stealing, robbing). It was essential to subdue the rat as a destructive pest, a type of vighna (impediment) that needed to be overcome. According to this theory, showing Ganesha as master of the rat demonstrates his function as Vigneshvara (Lord of Obstacles) and gives evidence of his possible role as a folk grāmata-devatā (village deity) who later rose to greater prominence.[82] Martin-Dubost notes a view that the rat is a symbol suggesting that Ganesha, like the rat, penetrates even the most secret places.[83] [edit] Associations [edit] Obstacles Ganesha is Vighneshvara or Vighnaraja, the Lord of Obstacles, both of a material and spiritual order.[84] He is popularly worshipped as a remover of obstacles, though traditionally he also places obstacles in the path of those who need to be checked. Paul Courtright says that "his task in the divine scheme of things, his dharma, is to place and remove obstacles. It is his particular territory, the reason for his creation."[85] A modern illustration of Ganesha A modern illustration of Ganesha Krishan notes that some of Ganesha's names reflect shadings of multiple roles that have evolved over time.[29] Dhavalikar ascribes the quick ascension of Ganesha in the Hindu pantheon, and the emergence of the Ganapatyas, to this shift in emphasis from vighnakartā (obstacle-creator) to vighnahartā (obstacle-averter).[86] However, both functions continue to be vital to his character, as Robert Brown explains, "even after the Purāṇic Gaṇeśa is well-defined, in art Gaṇeśa remained predominantly important for his dual role as creator and remover of obstacles, thus having both a negative and a positive aspect".[87] [edit] Buddhi Ganesha is considered to be the Lord of letters and learning.[88] In Sanskrit, the word buddhi is a feminine noun that is variously translated as intelligence, wisdom, or intellect.[89] The concept of buddhi is closely associated with the personality of Ganesha, especially in the Puranic period, when many stories stress his cleverness and love of intelligence. One of Ganesha's names in the Ganesha Purana and the Ganesha Sahasranama is Buddhipriya.[90] This name also appears in a list of 21 names at the end of the Ganesha Sahasranama that Ganesha says are especially important.[91] The word priya can mean "fond of", and in a marital context it can mean "lover" or "husband",[92] so the name may mean either "Fond of Intelligence" or "Buddhi's Husband".[93] [edit] Aum Ganesha is identified with the Hindu mantra Aum (ॐ, also called Om). The term oṃkārasvarūpa (Aum is his form), when identified with Ganesha, refers to the notion that he personifies the primal sound.[94] The Ganapati Atharvashirsa attests to this association. Chinmayananda translates the relevant passage as follows: (O Lord Ganapati!) You are (the Trinity) Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesa. You are Indra. You are fire [Agni] and air [Vāyu]. You are the sun [Sūrya] and the moon [Chandrama]. You are Brahman. You are (the three worlds) Bhuloka [earth], Antariksha-loka [space], and Swargaloka [heaven]. You are Om. (That is to say, You are all this).[95] Ganesha (Devanagari) Aum jewel Ganesha (Devanagari) Aum jewel Some devotees see similarities between the shape of Ganesha's body in iconography and the shape of Aum in the Devanāgarī and Tamil scripts.[96] [edit] First chakra According to Kundalini yoga, Ganesha resides in the first chakra, called mūlādhāra. Mula means "original, main"; adhara means "base, foundation". The muladhara chakra is the principle on which the manifestation or outward expansion of primordial Divine Force rests.[97] This association is also attested to in the Ganapati Atharvashirsa. Courtright translates this passage as follows: "[O Ganesha,] You continually dwell in the sacral plexus at the base of the spine [mūlādhāra cakra]."[98] Thus, Ganesha has a permanent abode in every being at the Muladhara.[99] Ganesha holds, supports and guides all other chakras, thereby "governing the forces that propel the wheel of life".[97] [edit] Family and consorts For more details on this topic, see Consorts of Ganesha. Shiva and Pārvatī giving a bath to Gaṇeśa. Kangra miniature, 18th century. Allahbad Museum, New Delhi. Shiva and Pārvatī giving a bath to Gaṇeśa. Kangra miniature, 18th century. Allahbad Museum, New Delhi.[100] Though Ganesha is popularly held to be the son of Shiva and Parvati, the Puranic myths disagree about his birth.[101] He may have been created by Shiva,[102] or by Parvati,[103] or by Shiva and Parvati,[104] or appeared mysteriously and was discovered by Shiva and Parvati.[105] The family includes his brother Skanda, who is also called Karttikeya, Murugan, and other names.[106] Regional differences dictate the order of their births. In northern India, Skanda is generally said to be the elder, while in the south, Ganesha is considered the first born.[107] Skanda was an important martial deity from about 500 BCE to about 600 CE, when worship of him declined significantly in northern India. As Skanda fell, Ganesha rose. Several stories tell of sibling rivalry between the brothers[108] and may reflect sectarian tensions.[109] Ganesha's marital status, the subject of considerable scholarly review, varies widely in mythological stories.[110] One pattern of myths identifies Ganesha as an unmarried brahmacārin.[111] This view is common in southern India and parts of northern India.[112] Another pattern associates him with the concepts of Buddhi (intellect), Siddhi (spiritual power), and Riddhi (prosperity); these qualities are sometimes personified as goddesses, said to be Ganesha's wives.[113] He also may be shown with a single consort or a nameless servant (Sanskrit: daşi).[114] Another pattern connects Ganesha with the goddess of culture and the arts, Sarasvati or Śarda (particularly in Maharashtra).[115] He is also associated with the goddess of luck and prosperity, Lakshmi.[116] Another pattern, mainly prevalent in the Bengal region, links Ganesha with the banana tree, Kala Bo.[117] The Shiva Purana says that Ganesha had two sons: Kşema (prosperity) and Lābha (profit). In northern Indian variants of this story, the sons are often said to be Śubha (auspiciouness) and Lābha.[118] The 1975 Hindi film Jai Santoshi Maa shows Ganesha married to Riddhi and Siddhi and having a daughter named Santoshi Ma, the goddess of satisfaction. This story has no Puranic basis, but Anita Raina Thapan and Lawrence Cohen cite Santoshi Ma's cult as evidence of Ganesha's continuing evolution as a popular deity.[119] [edit] Worship and festivals Celebrations of Ganesh by the Indian and Sri Lankan Tamil community in Paris, France. Celebrations of Ganesh by the Indian and Sri Lankan Tamil community in Paris, France. Ganesha is worshipped on many religious and secular occasions; especially at the beginning of ventures such as buying a vehicle or starting a business.[120] K.N. Somayaji says, "there can hardly be a [Hindu] home [in India] which does not house an idol of Ganapati. [..] Ganapati, being the most popular deity in India, is worshipped by almost all castes and in all parts of the country".[121] Devotees believe that if Ganesha is propitiated, he grants success, prosperity and protection against adversity.[122] Ganesha is a non-sectarian deity, and Hindus of all denominations invoke him at the beginning of prayers, important undertakings, and religious ceremonies.[123] Dancers and musicians, particularly in southern India, begin performances of arts such as the Bharatnatyam dance with a prayer to Ganesha.[124] Mantras such as Om Shri Gaṇeshāya Namah (Om, salutation to the Illustrious Ganesha) are often used. One of the most famous mantras associated with Ganesha is Om Gaṃ Ganapataye Namah (Om, Gaṃ, Salutation to the Lord of Hosts).[125] Devotees offer Ganesha sweets such as modaka and small sweet balls (laddus).[126] He is often shown carrying a bowl of sweets, called a modakapātra.[127] Because of his identification with the color red, he is often worshipped with red sandalwood paste (raktacandana)[128] or red flowers. Dūrvā grass (Cynodon dactylon) and other materials are also used in his worship.[129] Festivals associated with Ganesh are "the Vināyaka caturthī (Ganesh Chaturthi) in the śuklapakṣa (the fourth day of the waxing moon) in the month of bhādrapada (August/September) and the Gaṇeśa jayanti (Gaṇeśa's birthday) celebrated on the cathurthī of the kṛṣṇapakṣa (fourth day of the waning moon) in the month of māgha (January/February)."[130] [edit] Ganesh Chaturthi Main article: Ganesh Chaturthi A large Ganesha statue at a Chaturthi festival in Mumbai, 2004 A large Ganesha statue at a Chaturthi festival in Mumbai, 2004 An annual festival honours Ganesha for ten days, starting on Ganesh Chaturthi, which typically falls in late August or early September.[131] The festival culminates on the day of Ananta Chaturdashi, when images (murtis) of Ganesha are immersed in the most convenient body of water.[132] In 1893, Lokmanya Tilak transformed this annual Ganesha festival from private family celebrations into a grand public event.[133] He did so "to bridge the gap between the Brahmins and the non-Brahmins and find an appropriate context in which to build a new grassroots unity between them" in his nationalistic strivings against the British in Maharashtra.[134] Because of Ganesha's wide appeal as "the god for Everyman", Tilak chose him as a rallying point for Indian protest against British rule.[135] Tilak was the first to install large public images of Ganesha in pavilions, and he established the practice of submerging all the public images on the tenth day.[136] Today, Hindus across India celebrate the Ganapati festival with great fervour, though it is most popular in the state of Maharashtra.[137][138] The festival also assumes huge proportions in Mumbai and in the surrounding belt of Ashtavinayaka temples. [edit] Temples Further information: List of Ganapati temples and Ashtavinayak In Hindu temples, Ganesha is depicted in various ways: as an acolyte or subordinate deity (pãrśva-devatã); as a deity related to the principal deity (parivāra-devatã); or as the principal deity of the temple (pradhāna), treated similarly as the highest gods of the Hindu pantheon.[139] As the god of transitions, he is placed at the doorway of many Hindu temples to keep out the unworthy, which is analogous to his role as Parvati’s doorkeeper.[140] In addition, several shrines are dedicated to Ganesha himself, of which the Ashtavinayak (Sanskrit: अष्टविनायक; aṣṭavināyaka; lit. "eight Ganesha (shrines)") in Maharashtra are particularly well known. Located within a 100-kilometer radius of the city of Pune, each of these eight shrines celebrates a particular form of Ganapati, complete with its own lore and legend; together they "form a mandala, demarking the sacred cosmos of Ganesha".[141] A statue of Ganesha carved in wood A statue of Ganesha carved in wood There are many other important Ganesha temples at the following locations: Wai in Maharashtra; Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh; Jodhpur, Nagaur and Raipur (Pali) in Rajasthan; Baidyanath in Bihar; Baroda, Dholaka, and Valsad in Gujarat and Dhundiraj Temple in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. Prominent Ganesha temples in southern India include the following: the Jambukeśvara Temple at Tiruchirapalli; at Rameshvaram and Suchindram in TamilNadu; Hampi, Kasargod, and Idagunji in Karnataka; and Bhadrachalam in Andhra Pradesh.[142] T. A. Gopinatha notes, “Every village however small has its own image of Vighneśvara (Vigneshvara) with or without a temple to house it in. At entrances of villages and forts, below pīpaḹa trees […], in a niche […] in temples of Viṣṇu (Vishnu) as well as Śiva (Shiva) and also in separate shrines specially constructed in Śiva temples […]; the figure of Vighneśvara is invariably seen.”[143] Ganesha temples have also been built outside of India, including southeast Asia, Nepal,[144] and in several western countries.[145] [edit] Rise to prominence [edit] First appearance Ganesha appeared in his classic form as a clearly-recognizable deity with well-defined iconographic attributes in the early 4th to 5th centuries.[146] Shanti Lal Nagar says that the earliest known iconic image of Ganesha is in the niche of the Shiva temple at Bhumra, which has been dated to the Gupta period.[147] His independent cult appeared by about the 10th century.[148] Narain summarizes the controversy between devotees and academics regarding the development of Ganesha as follows: [W]hat is inscrutable is the somewhat dramatic appearance of Gaņeśa on the historical scene. His antecedents are not clear. His wide acceptance and popularity, which transcend sectarian and territorial limits, are indeed amazing. On the one hand there is the pious belief of the orthodox devotees in Gaņeśa's Vedic origins and in the Purāṇic explanations contained in the confusing, but nonetheless interesting, mythology. On the other hand there are doubts about the existence of the idea and the icon of this deity" before the fourth to fifth century A.D. ... [I]n my opinion, indeed there is no convincing evidence of the existence of this divinity prior to the fifth century.[149] [edit] Possible influences Courtright reviews various speculative theories about the early history of Ganesha, including supposed tribal traditions and animal cults, and dismisses all of them in this way: In this search for a historical origin for Gaņeśa, some have suggested precise locations outside the Brāhmaṇic tradition.... These historical locations are intriguing to be sure, but the fact remains that they are all speculations, variations on the Dravidian hypothesis, which argues that anything not attested to in the Vedic and Indo-European sources must have come into Brāhmaṇic religion from the Dravidian or aboriginal populations of India as part of the process that produced Hinduism out of the interactions of the Aryan and non-Aryan populations. There is no independent evidence for an elephant cult or a totem; nor is there any archaeological data pointing to a tradition prior to what we can already see in place in the Purāṇic literature and the iconography of Gaņeśa.[150] Thapan's book on the development of Ganesha devotes a chapter to speculations about the role elephants had in early India but concludes that, "although by the second century AD the elephant-headed yakṣa form exists it cannot be presumed to represent Gaṇapati-Vināyaka. There is no evidence of a deity by this name having an elephant or elephant-headed form at this early stage. Gaṇapati-Vināyaka had yet to make his debut."[151] One theory of the origin of Ganesha is that he gradually came to prominence in connection with the four Vināyakas.[152] In Hindu mythology, the Vināyakas were a group of four troublesome demons who created obstacles and difficulties[153] but who were easily propitiated.[154] The name Vināyaka is a common name for Ganesha both in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras.[155] Krishan is one of the academics who accepts this view, stating flatly of Ganesha, "He is a non-vedic god. His origin is to be traced to the four Vināyakas, evil spirits, of the Mānavagŗhyasūtra (7th–4th century BCE) who cause various types of evil and suffering".[156] Depictions of elephant-headed human figures, which some identify with Ganesha, appear in Indian art and coinage as early as the 2nd century.[157] [edit] Vedic and epic literature Fifth century marble Ganesha found at Gardez, Afghanistan, now at Dargah Pir Rattan Nath, Kabul. The inscription says that this "great and beautiful image of Mahāvināyaka" was consecrated by the Shahi King Khingala. Fifth century marble Ganesha found at Gardez, Afghanistan, now at Dargah Pir Rattan Nath, Kabul. The inscription says that this "great and beautiful image of Mahāvināyaka" was consecrated by the Shahi King Khingala.[158] The title "Leader of the group" (Sanskrit: gaṇapati) occurs twice in the Rig Veda, but in neither case does it refer to the modern Ganesha. The term appears in RV 2.23.1 as a title for Brahmanaspati, according to commentators.[159] While this verse doubtless refers to Brahmanaspati, it was later adopted for worship of Ganesha and is still used today.[160] In rejecting any claim that this passage is evidence of Ganesha in the Rig Veda, Ludo Rocher says that it "clearly refers to Bṛhaspati—who is the deity of the hymn—and Bṛhaspati only".[161] Equally clearly, the second passage (RV 10.112.9) refers to Indra,[162] who is given the epithet 'gaṇapati', translated "Lord of the companies (of the Maruts)."[163] However, Rocher notes that the more recent Ganapatya literature often quotes the Rigvedic verses to give Vedic respectability to Ganesha .[164] Two verses in texts belonging to Black Yajurveda, Maitrāyaṇīya Saṃhitā (2.9.1)[165] and Taittirīya Āraṇyaka (10.1),[166] appeal to a deity as "the tusked one" (Dantiḥ), "elephant-faced" (Hastimukha), and "with a curved trunk" (Vakratuņḍa). These names are suggestive of Ganesha, and the 14th century commentator Sayana explicitly establishes this identification.[167] The description of Dantin, possessing a twisted trunk (vakratuṇḍa) and holding a corn-sheaf, a sugar cane, and a club,[168] is so characteristic of the Puranic Ganapati that Heras says "we cannot resist to accept his full identification with this Vedic Dantin".[169] However, Krishan considers these hymns to be post-Vedic additions.[170] Thapan reports that these passages are "generally considered to have been interpolated". Dhavalikar says, "the references to the elephant-headed deity in the Maitrāyaṇī Saṃhitā have been proven to be very late interpolations, and thus are not very helpful for determining the early formation of the deity".[171] Ganesha does not appear in Indian epic literature that is dated to the Vedic period. A late interpolation to the epic poem Mahabharata says that the sage Vyāsa asked Ganesha to serve as his scribe to transcribe the poem as he dictated it to him. Ganesha agreed but only on condition that Vyasa recite the poem uninterrupted, that is, without pausing. The sage agreed, but found that to get any rest he needed to recite very complex passages so Ganesha would have to ask for clarifications. The story is not accepted as part of the original text by the editors of the critical edition of the Mahabharata,[172] in which the twenty-line story is relegated to a footnote in an appendix.[173] The story of Ganesha acting as the scribe occurs in 37 of the 59 manuscripts consulted during preparation of the critical edition.[174] Ganesha's association with mental agility and learning is one reason he is shown as scribe for Vyāsa's dictation of the Mahabharata in this interpolation.[175] Richard L. Brown dates the story to the 8th century, and Moriz Winternitz concludes that it was known as early as c. 900, but it was not added to the Mahabharata some 150 years later. Winternitz also notes that a distinctive feature in South Indian manuscripts of the Mahabharata is their omission of this Ganesha legend.[176] The term vināyaka is found in some recensions of the Śāntiparva and Anuśāsanaparva that are regarded as interpolations.[177] A reference to Vighnakartṛīṇām ("Creator of Obstacles") in Vanaparva is also believed to be an interpolation and does not appear in the critical edition.[178] [edit] Puranic period Stories about Ganesha often occur in the Puranic corpus. Brown notes while the Puranas "defy precise chronological ordering", the more detailed narratives of Ganesha's life are in the late texts, c. 600–1300.[179] Yuvraj Krishan says that the Puranic myths about the birth of Ganesha and how he acquired an elephant's head are in the later Puranas, which were composed from c. 600 onwards. He elaborates on the matter to say that references to Ganesha in the earlier Puranas, such as the Vayu and Brahmanda Puranas, are later interpolations made during the 7th to 10th centuries.[180] In his survey of Ganesha's rise to prominence in Sanskrit literature, Ludo Rocher notes that: Above all, one cannot help being struck by the fact that the numerous stories surrounding Gaṇeśa concentrate on an unexpectedly limited number of incidents. These incidents are mainly three: his birth and parenthood, his elephant head, and his single tusk. Other incidents are touched on in the texts, but to a far lesser extent.[181] Ganesha's rise to prominence was codified in the 9th century, when he was formally included as one of the five primary deities of Smartism. The 9th century philosopher Śaṅkarācārya popularized the "worship of the five forms" (pañcāyatana pūjā) system among orthodox Brahmins of the Smārta tradition.[182] This worship practice invokes the five deities Ganesha, Vishnu, Shiva, Devī, and Sūrya.[183] Śaṅkarācārya instituted the tradition primarily to unite the principal deities of these five major sects on an equal status. This formalized the role of Ganesha as a complementary deity. [edit] Scriptures Further information: Ganesha Purana, Mudgala Purana and Ganapati Atharvashirsa Statue of Ganesha with a flower Statue of Ganesha with a flower Once Ganesha was accepted as one of the five principal deities of Brahmanism, some brāhmaṇas chose to worship Ganesha as their principal deity. They developed the Ganapatya tradition, as seen in the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana.[184] The date of composition for the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana—and their dating relative to one another—has sparked academic debate. Both works were developed over time and contain age-layered strata. Anita Thapan reviews comments about dating and provides her own judgement. "It seems likely that the core of the Ganesha Purana appeared around the twelfth and thirteenth centuries", she says, "but was later interpolated."[185] Lawrence W. Preston considers the most reasonable date for the Ganesha Purana to be between 1100 and 1400, which coincides with the apparent age of the sacred sites mentioned by the text.[186] R.C. Hazra suggests that the Mudgala Purana is older than the Ganesha Purana, which he dates between 1100 and 1400.[187] However, Phyllis Granoff finds problems with this relative dating and concludes that the Mudgala Purana was the last of the philosophical texts concerned with Ganesha. She bases her reasoning on the fact that, among other internal evidence, the Mudgala Purana specifically mentions the Ganesha Purana as one of the four Puranas (the Brahma, the Brahmanda, the Ganesha, and the Mudgala Puranas) which deal at length with Ganesha.[188] While the kernel of the text must be old, it was interpolated until the 17th and 18th centuries as the worship of Ganapati became more important in certain regions.[189] Another highly regarded scripture, the Ganapati Atharvashirsa, was probably composed during the 16th or 17th centuries.[190] [edit] Beyond India and Hinduism For more details on this topic, see Ganesha outside Indian Hinduism. "Dancing Ganesh. Central Tibet. Early fifteenth century. Colours on cotton. Height: 68 centimetres". This form is also known as Maharakta ("The Great Red One"). "Dancing Ganesh. Central Tibet. Early fifteenth century. Colours on cotton. Height: 68 centimetres".[191] This form is also known as Maharakta ("The Great Red One").[192] Commercial and cultural contacts extended India's influence in western and southeast Asia. Ganesha is one of many Hindu deities who reached foreign lands as a result.[193] Ganesha was particularly worshipped by traders and merchants, who went out of India for commercial ventures.[194] The period from approximately the 10th century onwards was marked by the development of new networks of exchange, the formation of trade guilds, and a resurgence of money circulation. During this time, Ganesha became the principal deity associated with traders.[195] The earliest inscription invoking Ganesha before any other deity is associated with the merchant community.[196] Hindus migrated to the Malay Archipelago and took their culture, including Ganesha, with them.[197] Statues of Ganesha are found throughout the Malay Archipelago in great numbers, often beside Shiva sanctuaries. The forms of Ganesha found in Hindu art of Java, Bali, and Borneo show specific regional influences.[198] The gradual spread of Hindu culture to southeast Asia established Ganesha in modified forms in Burma, Cambodia, and Thailand. In Indochina, Hinduism and Buddhism were practiced side by side, and mutual influences can be seen in the iconography of Ganesha in the region.[199] In Thailand, Cambodia, and among the Hindu classes of the Chams in Vietnam, Ganesha was mainly thought of as a remover of obstacles.[200] Even today in Buddhist Thailand, Ganesha is regarded as a remover of obstacles, the god of success.[201] Before the arrival of Islam, Afghanistan had close cultural ties with India, and the adoration of both Hindu and Buddhist deities was practiced. A few examples of sculptures from the 5th to the 7th centuries have survived, suggesting that the worship of Ganesha was then in vogue in the region.[202] Ganesha appears in Mahayana Buddhism, not only in the form of the Buddhist god Vināyaka, but also as a Hindu demon form with the same name.[203] His image appears in Buddhist sculptures during the late Gupta period.[204] As the Buddhist god Vināyaka, he is often shown dancing. This form, called Nṛtta Ganapati, was popular in northern India, later adopted in Nepal, and then in Tibet.[205] In Nepal, the Hindu form of Ganesha, known as Heramba, is very popular; he has five heads and rides a lion.[206] Tibetan representations of Ganesha show ambivalent views of him.[207] A Tibetan rendering of Ganapati is tshogs bdag.[208] In one Tibetan form, he is shown being trodden under foot by Mahākāla, a popular Tibetan deity.[209] Other depictions show him as the Destroyer of Obstacles, sometimes dancing.[210] Ganesha appears in China and Japan in forms that show distinct regional character. In northern China, the earliest known stone statue of Ganesha carries an inscription dated to 531.[211] In Japan, the Ganesha cult was first mentioned in 806.[212] The canonical literature of Jainism does not mention the worship of Ganesha.[213] However, Ganesha is worshipped by most Jains, for whom he appears to have taken over certain functions of Kubera.[214] Jain connections with the trading community support the idea that Jainism took up Ganesha worship as a result of commercial connections.[215] The earliest known Jain Ganesha statue dates to about the 9th century.[216] A 15th century Jain text lists procedures for the installation of Ganapati images.[217] Images of Ganesha appear in the Jain temples of Rajasthan and Gujarat.[218]